The present invention relates to tasty, convenient, nutritionally balanced foods that offer an alternative to appealing but unhealthy foods. Processes for making tasty, convenient, nutritionally balanced foods and methods of using said foods are also disclosed.
It is common for foods to be convenient and tasty but unhealthy, like candy bars, cheese crackers, and similar xe2x80x9cjunk foodsxe2x80x9d; inconvenient to prepare or perishable but nutritious, like home cooked meals; or nutritious and convenient but unappealing like health foods. Unfortunately, many consumers do not have the time to obtain and prepare the correct mix of foods that will provide the balanced nutrition that their bodies require. Instead, many consumers resort to health foods, but soon find themselves replacing these unappealing foods with xe2x80x9cjunk foodsxe2x80x9d.
Although xe2x80x9cjunk foodsxe2x80x9d are appealing, they have a negative impact on the physical and mental health of consumers. In particular, it is appreciated that the high fat and calorie load and low dietary fiber level of xe2x80x9cjunk foodsxe2x80x9d can contribute to obesity and many of the chronic diseases, such as coronary heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and certain types of cancer. The following list of food items highlights the significant fat content, caloric contribution from fat, and minimal dietary fiber content of many of these foods (Pennington, J., Bowes and Church""s Food Values of Portions Commonly Used, 17th edition, 1998, Lippincott, Pa).
To summarize, consumers face the dilemma of choosing health or satisfaction when selecting a convenient food. Since many consumers prefer satisfaction over nutrition, the benefits of unappealing but nutritious foods often go unrealized. Thus, what is needed is at least one convenient, appealing food composition having a balanced nutritional profile.
Unfortunately, the development of nutritious, convenient, appealing foods has met with numerous technical obstacles. In particular, previous attempts at producing a ready-to-eat, appealing, nutritionally balanced food composition have resulted in products that have poor taste systems due to an overall poor organoleptic appeal and appearance. The following brief summary of technical challenges illustrate why the food industry has failed to provide the public with a tasty, ready-to-eat, nutritionally balanced food.
Convenient or ready-to-eat foods tend to be nutritionally unbalanced as they are high in fat and carbohydrates, and low in dietary fiber and protein. Decreasing the level of fat and carbohydrates in a ready-to-eat food, while increasing the level of dietary fiber and protein, is known to seriously compromise a food""s taste system. In fact, the literature has noted that consumers have been complaining, even if they have not been fully articulating, xe2x80x9cthat something is missingxe2x80x9d in their low-fat, low-calorie foods. According to the literature, that something may be an opioid stimulator as an opioid-releasing effect has been correlated to combinations of sugar and fat. (Adam Drewnowski, Trends in Food Science and Technology, April, 1992). Drewnowski noted that high-sugar, high-fat foods figure most heavily in food cravings and overeating. Naloxone administrations reduced the appeal of such foods in a study group of binge eaters. Conversely, Drewnowski cites clinical studies linking opiate addiction (to substances like opium and heroin) to sweet cravings. Thus, it is postulated that fully duplicating the sensation of fat alone may prove a chimera until other taste stimulating components or levels and combination of components are identified.
In addition to the challenges associated with reducing fat and sugar levels, it is known that increasing a ready-to-eat food""s dietary fiber and protein levels results in the loss of the desirable product texture that consumers expectxe2x80x94this is especially true for snack foods. The loss of desirable texture typically results in products, such as high protein and fiber health bar snacks, that are described by consumers as having an unpleasant stickiness, grittiness or dryness. Instead of improving texture, current attempts to solve textural problems merely hide unpleasant textural characteristics. Attempted solutions include coating products with materials that are high in fat and sugar, increasing flavor levels or mixtures thereof. Unfortunately, these xe2x80x9cfixesxe2x80x9d are only temporary, as shortly after initial bite or product breakdown, the true nature of the product""s texture becomes apparent. While the loss of textural quality is appreciated by those skilled in the art, the complex interactions that give rise to poor textures are little understood. As a result, a solution to the textural problems associated with convenient, nutritionally balanced foods has remained elusive.
In addition to textural problems, it is appreciated that dietary fibers and proteins can produce objectionable off-flavors in the finished products. For example, dietary fiber sources, such as sugar beet fiber, and protein sources, such as soy flour, can cause objectionable off-flavors. Generally, off-flavors arising from components of a food are cumulative. However, with high levels of certain components, such as added protein and fibers, the resulting combination of off-flavors and poor textures may synergistically detract from a food""s appeal.
Finally, due to the low fat and carbohydrate levels and higher protein and fiber levels of nutritionally balanced foods, the degrees of processing freedom for these foods are reduced. As a result, the processing challenges associated with producing tasty, nutritionally balanced foods are far greater than the challenges associated with producing conventional foods.
In summary, the need for a convenient, nutritionally balanced food composition, having an appealing taste system, has not been met. At best, the art teaches food components that must be combined with other materials, outside of their original packaging, to obtain a finished food; foods that require additional preparation, such as cooking or baking; and ready-to-eat foods that may offer, at best, only 2 of the 3 following desired food characteristics: balanced nutrition, convenience and taste. Thus, there remains a need for a convenient, nutritionally balanced food having a sufficient organoleptic appeal and appearance such that consumers will be motivated to replace unhealthy foods in their diets with said nutritionally balanced food.
Applicants have extensively researched the properties of nutritious food components, and carefully studied the eating habits and nutritional needs of consumers. As a result of Applicants"" efforts, Applicants recognized the need to combine the benefits of taste, balanced nutrition and convenience. Surprisingly, despite numerous technical hurdles, Applicants have produced an array of foods that offer the above mentioned benefit package. Specific embodiments of the present invention include but are not limited to bars; potato crisps, extruded snacks, filled bars and crackers; dips; crackers and dip contained in separate compartments of a single package and cookies. In summary, since Applicants"" invention combines balanced nutrition and convenience with an appealing taste system, and since consumers are more likely to consume foods that have an appealing taste system, consumers are now more likely to enjoy the health benefits that are obtained by consuming nutritious foods.
Thus, an object of the present invention is to provide a genus of convenient food compositions having balanced nutritional profiles and superior taste systems.
Another object of the present invention is to provide a subgenus of ready-to-eat snack food compositions having balanced nutritional profiles and superior taste systems.
Another object of the present invention is to provide a subgenus of ready-to-eat snack food compositions having balanced nutritional profiles, superior overall tastes and an appearance similar to or the same as snack foods.
Another object of this invention is to provide processes for making said genus and subgenera of food compositions.
Still another object of this invention is to provide methods of using said genus and subgenera of food compositions to improve the health of a mammal, particularly a human.
These and other objects will become apparent from the following detailed description.
In general, the present invention concerns a ready-to-eat food having, at a 60% confidence level, a lower taste value greater than xe2x88x928.00; a water activity of less than 0.90; and comprising, on a single reference serving basis:
a.) an amino acid source that provides at least 19% of the total caloric value of said food;
b.) a fat that provides less than 30% of the total caloric value of said food; and
c.) a carbohydrate that provides the balance of the total caloric value of said food and at least about 2.5 grams of dietary fiber.
The present invention also generally concerns a method for evaluating the taste system of a food product.
As used herein, the term xe2x80x9ctaste systemxe2x80x9d means the overall consumer acceptance of a food as a result of the combination of the food""s organoleptic properties and appearance.
As used herein, the term xe2x80x9corganoleptic propertiesxe2x80x9d includes the flavor display, texture, and sound of a food that are experienced by the eater of said food when said food is eaten.
As used herein, the term xe2x80x9corganoleptic appealxe2x80x9d refers to the appeal of a food, to the eater of said food, arising from the flavor display, texture and sound of said food.
As used herein, xe2x80x9ctastexe2x80x9d refers to the flavor display and texture of a food that are experienced by an eater of said food when said food is eaten.
As used herein, the term xe2x80x9crelative taste scorexe2x80x9d refers to the difference between the sample mean overall taste score of a test product and the sample mean overall taste score of a reference.
As used herein, the xe2x80x9clower taste valuexe2x80x9d, of a food is the value for the lower bound for the confidence interval about the relative taste score that is generated when a product is tested according to Applicant""s Taste Test Protocol 1.1.
As used herein, the xe2x80x9cupper taste valuexe2x80x9d, of a food is the value for the upper bound for the confidence interval about the relative taste score that is generated when a product is tested according to Applicant""s Taste Test Protocol 1.1.
As used herein, the term xe2x80x9cnutritionally balancedxe2x80x9d, when used to describe a food, means that a single serving or reference serving of the food provides a nutritionally desirable level of fat, protein or amino acid source, and dietary fiber. Specifically, xe2x80x9cnutritionally balancedxe2x80x9d foods provide a relatively low level of digestible fat (i.e., 3 g or less per 100 kcal serving and/or 30% or less of total calories from fat), are a good source of dietary protein or other amino acid source (i.e., 5 g or more per 100 kcal serving and/or 19% or more of total calories from protein), and are a good source of dietary fiber (i.e., about 2.5 g or more of dietary fiber per reference serving and/or 100 kcal serving).
As used herein, the term xe2x80x9csingle servingxe2x80x9d means any quantity of food sold, marketed, described, advertised, or implied to be equivalent to a single serving size or unit. For example, in the U.S., single serving sizes for foods are defined in the FDA Labeling Rules as contained in 21 CFR xc2xa7 101.12 which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
As used herein, the term xe2x80x9can amino acid sourcexe2x80x9d means a material containing amino acids. Said amino acid source may include or be derived from, but is not limited to, plant proteins, animal proteins, proteins from single cell organisms and free amino acids.
As used herein, the term xe2x80x9cfatxe2x80x9d refers to the total amount of digestible, partially digestible and nondigestible fats or oils that are present in the embodiments of the present invention.
As used herein, the terms xe2x80x9clipidxe2x80x9d, xe2x80x9cfatxe2x80x9d and xe2x80x9coilxe2x80x9d are synonymous.
As used herein, the term xe2x80x9ccarbohydratexe2x80x9d refers to the total amount of sugar alcohols, monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, digestible, partially digestible and non-digestible polysaccharides; and lignin or lignin like materials that are present in the embodiments of the present invention.
As used herein, the term xe2x80x9cdietary fiberxe2x80x9d refers to the group of food components derived from plant material, or analogous carbohydrates, that are resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine. This includes various polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, polyfructans, and lignins that are resistant to digestion. The term analagous carbohydrates in the above definition refers to carbohydrate compounds that may not be specifically derived from plant material, but that are resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine (e.g., a synthetic non-digestible polysaccharide or oligosaccharide, such as polydextrose).
As used herein, the terms xe2x80x9ctotal dietary fiberxe2x80x9d and xe2x80x9cdietary fiberxe2x80x9d are synonymous.
As used herein, the term xe2x80x9cready-to-eatxe2x80x9d is encompassed within the broader term xe2x80x9cconvenientxe2x80x9d.
As used herein, the term xe2x80x9cready-to-eatxe2x80x9d when used to describe a food, means that after manufacture and packaging, the food product requires no additional processing, including but not limited to cooking, baking, microwaving, boiling, frying; or combination with components outside of the product""s packaging to achieve the novel combination of balanced nutrition and taste that Applicants are claiming. However, this does not rule out that one or all of the parameters of Applicants"" invention, for example, balanced nutrition, convenience and taste, may be improved when said compositions are processed further or combined with other foods. For purposes of this invention, cereals are not considered to be a ready-to-eat food.
As used herein, the term xe2x80x9csubstantially anhydrousxe2x80x9d means having a water activity of less than about 0.3.
As used herein, the term xe2x80x9cpredominately anhydrousxe2x80x9d means having a water activity of less than about 0.6.
As used herein, the articles a and an when used in a claim, for example, xe2x80x9can amino acid sourcexe2x80x9d or xe2x80x9ca fatxe2x80x9d is understood to mean one or more of the material that is claimed or described.
As used herein, the term xe2x80x9cactive levelxe2x80x9d, as it relates to the amount of desired material in an ingredient, refers to the level of the desired material in the ingredient, as measured by the methods for quantifying components of Applicants"" invention, as detailed in the present application. For example, for fiber containing ingredients, the active level would be the actual percent fiber in the ingredient, as measured by the method for quantifying fiber as detailed in the present application.
Publications, patents, and patent applications are referred to throughout this disclosure. All references cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference.
All percentages and ratios are calculated by weight unless otherwise indicated. All percentages and ratios are calculated based on the total composition unless otherwise indicated.
Unless otherwise noted, all component or composition levels are in reference to the active level of that component or composition, and are exclusive of impurities, for example, residual solvents or by-products, which may be present in commercially available sources.
One of the greatest tasks the food industry has faced is to provide a food that couples good taste and a balanced nutritional profile. Providing a ready-to-eat food that couples good taste and a balanced nutritional profile has proved to be an even greater challenge. Before a solution to the above referenced problems can be appreciated, one must appreciate the complex nature and interactions of product structure, composition, processing and taste systems.
Product structure results from the interaction of product composition (formulation) and the process type and settings used to produce the product. The macro structures of foods vary and may contain one or more distinct phases or structures. For example, a crumb phase or structure (i.e. cracker, cookie, snack chip), a fluid phase or structure (i.e. fruit filling, confectionery, savory lubricious cheese filling, peanut butter), or a semi-solid phase or structure (i.e. chocolate, confections). Crumb structures may be solid (having no or minimal internal voidsxe2x80x94potato chip), semi-cellular (randomly spaced and shaped internal voidsxe2x80x94cookies), cellular (symmetrical shapes uniformly dispersedxe2x80x94corn curl), or layered (internal voids between distinct layersxe2x80x94crackers).
Fluid and semi-solid structures may be either oil or water continuous, and may be a dispersion (oil and water mixed together but not emulsified), a colloidal suspension (solid particles), an emulsion (oil and water present as discrete droplets as a single or double emulsion), or be air entrained (aerated). The rheology of these structures may be of a complex non-newtonian nature, and is influenced by the viscosity of the continuous phase and the size, shape and quantity of the dispersed phase. Regardless of the actual structure of a food, slight deviations from the structure that the consumer expects, such as soft rather than crisp potato chips, can result in an unappealing product.
It is also appreciated that the process and process settings that are used in producing a food have a great impact on the food""s structure and thus the appeal of its taste system. Processes that may be used to produce foods include but are not limited to baking, frying, laminating and extruding. Examples of the complexities associated with process and process setting selections used to produce conventional foods include: the proper selection of heating levels and times during baking or frying to produce a crumb having an appealing texture; sufficiently laminating a dough to create a layered structure; and obtaining the desired cellular structure during an extrusion process, a process wherein the composition is cooked under high pressure and the structure is formed as the product expands as it exits the atmospheric end of the extruder. Unfortunately, due to the low fat and carbohydrate levels and higher protein and fiber levels of nutritionally balanced foods, the degrees of processing freedom for these foods are reduced. As a result, the processing challenges associated with producing tasty, nutritionally balanced foods are far greater than the challenges associated with producing conventional foods.
Finally, the quality of a consumer""s eating experience and, thus the effectiveness of a food""s taste system, is dependent on the food""s organoleptic properties and visual appeal, which in turn are dependent on the product""s composition, structure and processing. Although a food""s taste system comprises organoleptic properties and visual appeal, taste alone is generally thought to consist of product texture and flavor display.
The eating experience is typically thought to comprise several stages consisting of initial bite, initial breakdown, continuous breakdown, and swallowing. When a food is eaten, texture and flavor display are time and eating stage dependent as the mouth, over time, adds varying amounts of mechanical energy, hydration, aeration and thermal energy. During the eating experience the consumer experiences one or more of the following textural sensations: hardness; crispiness/crunchiness; dryness and grittiness/graininess. The change in these textural sensations with time is known as mouth melt. One of the greatest challenges in designing a taste system for a nutritionally balanced food is to design a mouth melt that the consumer associates with a particular food form. For example, consumers expect health bar products to be soft and non-gritty much like a bakery item, however, current health bars that are high in fiber tend to be, in addition to their other drawbacks, gritty or grainy
In addition to textural considerations, flavor display is an important part of any taste system. Flavor display results from the time dependent combination of olfactory and gustatory sensations, thus it is closely tied to a product""s mouth melt. Olfactory flavors are usually comprised of many individual chemical compounds, which must be transferred into the mouth""s headspace before they can be sensed by the olfactory system.
Gustatory flavors are detected by sensors on the mouth""s surface as sweet, salty, bitter, or sour. Other gustatory sensations may include metallic and capsaicin (hot/spicy). In a solid food structure, sensations, such as sweet and salty, require particle dissolution before the sensations can be detected. Thus, these sensations are nearly instantaneously detected in beverages as the sugars and salts are already in solution. Consequently, designing taste systems for beverages may be an easier task as the materials that can mask off-flavors are instantaneously sensed, while off-flavors may take time to develop.
To summarize, the literature indicates that many of the levers and variables that are required to design effective taste systems for foods have yet to be discovered. As a result, the challenge of designing effective taste systems for nutritionally balanced foods is even greater as the degrees of design and processing freedom are reduced since components that can enhance taste, such as fats and carbohydrates, may need to be minimized, while materials that provide health benefits, such as fibers, proteins, vitamins and minerals typically need to be delivered at taste detracting levels. Thus, in order to arrive at their invention, Applicants had to discover or recognize the levers and variables of effective taste systems, and the manner in which these levers and variables interact.
An effective taste system is generally the key variable that determines the consumption level of a product. In fact, even if a product can impart long-term health benefits, a satisfactory taste system is generally the key to consumers"" use of the product. Yet, all too often, the design of a product""s taste system is incomplete or two-dimensional at best as xe2x80x9ctastexe2x80x9d represents complex perceptions that interpret chemical, physiological and psychological clues into the xe2x80x9clikesxe2x80x9d and xe2x80x9cdislikesxe2x80x9d of the foods we eat.
It is appreciated by those skilled in the art that designing an effective taste system is a multidimensional challenge as the overall taste of a product results, at a minimum, from the combination of the product""s organoleptic properties and visual appeal, which are dependent on the product""s composition, structure and processing. In the xe2x80x9cnutritionally balanced foodsxe2x80x9d arena, the challenge of designing an effective taste system is even greater as components that can enhance taste, such as fats and carbohydrates, may need to be minimized, while materials that provide health benefits, such as fibers, proteins, vitamins and minerals may need to be delivered at taste detracting levels in order to deliver a benefit or to meet regulatory requirements.
Surprisingly, despite numerous technical hurdles, Applicants have produced an array of foods that offer the combined benefits of taste, balanced nutrition and convenience. The teachings required to produce and use these new and beneficial food items are detailed below.
Water Activities
Embodiments of Applicants"" invention have water activities that are less than or equal to 0.90. Other embodiments of Applicants"" invention are xe2x80x9cnon-perishablexe2x80x9d, thus they have water activities that are sufficiently low to prevent the growth of most pathogenic and spoilage bacteria; i.e., a water activity less than 0.85 (Troller, J. A. 1980, Influence of Water Activity on Microorganisms in Foods, Food Technology, 34:76-80; Troller, J. A. 1989, Water Activity and Food Quality, in xe2x80x9cWater and Food Qualityxe2x80x9d, T. M. Hardman, ed., pg. 1-31). Preferably, embodiments of Applicants"" invention have water activities low enough to control or prevent the growth of yeasts and molds; i.e., a water activity less than 0.80, more preferably less than 0.75, and most preferably less than 0.70.
Nutritional Components
The additional dietary fiber and protein that is added to food formulations, to achieve a balanced nutritional profile, can adversely affect the resulting food""s taste system. To avoid these adverse effects, special care must be taken in the formulation and process.
Applicants have extensively researched the properties of nutritious food components. From these efforts, Applicants have developed guidelines, for formulating and processing nutritionally balanced foods, that teach one skilled in the art how to produce an array of ready-to-eat, nutritionally balanced foods having superior taste systems. These guidelines are directed to material selection and placement in said ready-to-eat, nutritionally balanced foods.
The high level of nutritional ingredients that are required to produce a nutritionally balanced food displaces other ingredients, such as fat and carbohydrates that are normally required to produce a product having an effective taste system. The loss of fat and carbohydrates, coupled with the increased protein and fiber typically results in a product having a poor overall taste. However, the impact of the increased protein and fiber can be minimized by selecting proteins and fibers that are as functionally similar as possible to the replaced fat and carbohydrate. For example, when a soluble dietary fiber is used in a filling, care should be taken to select a fiber having similar properties (particle size, dissolution rate, thickening effect, etc.) as the sugar the fiber is replacing.
Although attempting to match the functionality of an ingredient that is being replaced improves a food""s taste system, the food""s taste system can be further improved by the combination of minimizing the addition of nutritional ingredients and selecting nutritional ingredients that have minimal effects on flavor. Applicants have discovered that nutritional ingredients, particularly fiber and protein sources, that have active levels of at least 75% are preferred. Also, the proper use of process and formulation aids can improve a food""s taste system. However, with nutritionally balanced foods, the proper use of process and formulation aids is more important as high protein and fiber levels reduce the degrees of processing freedom. By way of example, as flour is reduced, the elasticity and handling properties of dough and thus its processability diminishes. Here, gluten may be added to restore the processability of the dough as gluten is the primary component of flour that gives dough its elasticity and handling properties. Also, concentrated flavor sources may be added to restore flavor lost due to the reduction of flavor components such as cheese powders.
Finally, Applicants have surprisingly discovered that the positioning of ingredients in a nutritionally balanced food can dramatically impact taste. For example, dietary fiber sources generally have less of a negative effect on a filling than on a crumb structure. Likewise, nutritional protein sources generally function better in the crumb structure than the filling. While not being bound by theory, possible explanations for these phenomena include: that proteins are more like components predominately found in the crumb and that soluble dietary fibers are more like components, such as sugars, that are predominately contained in fillings. Also, Applicants have discovered that if a nutritionally balanced food is designed to have a filling, it is best to place as much of the food""s vitamins and minerals as possible in the food""s filling structure. In summary, Applicants have discovered that when a product has 2 or more phases, the negative impact of gritty ingredients can be minimized by positioning them in the crumb; it is best to position heat sensitive materials, such as vitamins, in the phase that will experience the least degree and duration of thermal energy; and hydrophilic ingredients should be positioned in the most water continuous phase as this will minimize any negative taste impacts arising from the introduction of the hydrophilic ingredients to the product.
Amino Acid Source
An amino acid source is necessary to build and maintain muscle, blood, skin, and other tissues and organs, as well as for the formation of protein antibodies that are part of the immune system. The FDA has specified the Daily Reference Value for protein as 50 g/day (based upon a 2,000 kcal/day diet) and foods that provide at least 5 g protein per serving may be claimed as a xe2x80x9cgood sourcexe2x80x9d of protein. Since athletes have higher protein requirements than sedentary individuals, the protein recommendations for athletes are approximately 1.5-2.0 times the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA). See: Lemon, P. (1998) Effects of exercise on dietary protein requirements, International Journal of Sport Nutrition, 8:426-447. Due to the high levels of protein that athletes require and the off-flavors of protein supplements, a ready-to-eat, tasty, nutritionally balanced protein source is especially desired by these individuals.
While protein intakes are generally considered adequate in the United States and other modern countries, products having increased protein levels can be used to reduce fat intake as high protein products are typically low in fat. In addition, increased consumption of certain vegetable proteins, such as soy protein, may be desirable due to a hypocholesterolemic effect (Crouse, J. R. et al., Arch Intern Med, 1999, 159:2070-2076). Also, in many less developed countries protein deficiency, particularly among children, is still a significant nutritional concern. Protein or amino acid deficiency can result in impaired growth and tissue development. Serious protein deficiency in children can result in symptoms which include lack of growth, dermatitis, fatty liver, changes in the texture and pigmentation of hair, and diarrhea with resulting electrolyte loss (Pike, R. L. and Brown, M. L. 1975, Nutrition: An Integrated Approach, 2nd ed., Wiley, N.Y.).
Although increasing a food""s protein level can increase the health benefits of the food, increased protein levels detract from a food""s taste and texture. For example, highly concentrated protein sources in crumb structures can increase structural formation resulting in excessive hardness. In general, harder structures are more difficult to break down than softer structures, which results in negative mouth melt and flavor display properties during mastication. Also, some protein sources can influence dough-handling properties such as stickiness, which can impede processing the food form. Some nutritional protein sources effect water absorption and can effect dough properties and baking/frying properties. Unfortunately, the current art appears to be devoid of teachings as to the solutions to the type problems that are associated with the addition of high levels of proteins or amino acids to foods.
Applicants have extensively researched the properties of protein sources. From this research Applicants have noted certain trends in the use of protein sources in the formulation and production of ready-to-eat, nutritionally balanced foods. For example, it has been found that the use of egg white protein in place of soy isolate protein, at about a 10% level, in a cracker dough of this invention, results in a dough so sticky it is nearly impossible to handle in the process. However, the dough is made processable by reducing its water level by up to about 50%. The finished cracker product using egg white protein and reduced water, versus the soy isolate formulated product, results in a noticeably harder texture and slower mouth melt. Likewise, up to 50% less water is required to maintain processability in a formulation wherein whey isolate protein replaces soy isolate. Also, it should be noted that blends of proteins are preferred as they can actually enhance the dough""s processability, and product""s taste. For example, a blend of about 2.6 ratio soy isolate to whey isolate (9-11% total added protein, and about 20% added water), results in a dough formulation that processes very well, and a product having a good texture and mouth melt.
In addition to the dough formulation and processing teachings detailed above, Applicants have discovered that some nutritional protein sources produce more noticeable off-flavors when used in fillings. For, example it has been found that whey protein isolate has much less impact on flavor quality in a cheese filling than a similar amount of soy isolate protein. Applicants also discovered that the impact on flavor quality does not seem as apparent when these protein sources are used in a crumb structure. While not being bound by theory, it is thought that off-flavors imparted by ingredients are more noticeable in a lubricious fluid filling than in a baked solid or semi-solid crumb structure. In summary, care should be taken to either select protein sources that do not negatively effect flavor quality of the filling, or to include the protein source in the crumb formulation.
From Applicants"" research efforts, Applicants have determined that amino acid sources that can be used to produce the nutritional compositions of the present invention may include or be derived from, but are not limited to, plant proteins, animal proteins, proteins from single cell organisms, free amino acids and mixtures thereof. Non-limiting examples of useful plant derived proteins include: seed proteins that are isolated or derived from legumes, such as soybeans, peanuts, peas and beans; cereal proteins isolated or derived from cereal grains, such as wheat, oats, rice, corn, barley and rye; and mixtures thereof. Non-limiting examples of useful seed proteins include materials selected from the group consisting of soy flour, soy protein concentrate, soy protein isolate, peanut flour and mixtures thereof. Non-limiting examples of useful cereal proteins include materials selected from the group consisting of wheat flour, wheat protein concentrate and mixtures thereof.
Non-limiting examples of useful animal-derived proteins include, milk proteins that are isolated or derived from bovine milk; muscle tissue proteins that are isolated or derived from mammals, reptiles or amphibians; connective tissue proteins, egg proteins isolated or derived from eggs or components of eggs; and mixtures thereof. Non-limiting examples of useful milk proteins include caseins, such as sodium caseinate and calcium caseinate; and whey proteins, such as beta-lactoglobulin and alpha-lactalbumin. These milk proteins may be derived from whole milk, skim milk, nonfat dry milk solids, whey, whey protein concentrate, whey protein isolate, caseinates, and mixtures thereof. Non-limiting examples of useful connective tissue proteins include collagen, gelatin, elastin and mixtures thereof.
Additional useful proteins include proteins that are isolated or derived from single cell microorganisms, including but not limited to, yeast, bacteria, algae and mixtures thereof; and free amino acids, in particular essential amino acids that can be added to enhance overall protein quality.
Embodiments of Applicants"" invention have at least 19% of their total caloric value derived from one or more amino acid sources, in other embodiments from 19% to 50% of the invention""s total caloric value is derived from one or more amino acid sources. In still other embodiments, from 19% to 30% of the invention""s total caloric value is derived from one or more amino acid sources and in still other embodiments, from 19% to 25% of the invention""s total caloric value is derived from one or more amino acid sources.
Preferred amino acid sources are proteins having active levels of at least 75% and minimal taste impacts on the final food product. Examples of preferred proteins include: soy protein isolates such as Supro(copyright) 661 which has an 85% active level and which is supplied by Protein Technologies of St. Louis, Mo. USA; whey protein isolates such as BiPRO which has an 95% active level and which is supplied by Davisco Foods Int. Inc. of Le Sueur, Minn. USA and egg whites such as Type P-110 (#407) which has an 80% active level and which is supplied by Henningsen Foods, Inc. of Rye Brook, N.Y. USA.
Embodiments of Applicants"" invention have an amino acid chemical score greater than 0. In other embodiments of the invention, the amino acid chemical score ranges from 0.60 to 1.00 and in still other embodiments the amino acid chemical score ranges from 0.75 to 1.00. In still other embodiments of the invention the amino acid chemical score ranges from 0.85 to 1.00. Amino acid sources rich in specific amino acids are particularly useful as they can provide the additional benefit of increasing the overall protein quality or amino acid chemical score of a food composition. For example, because peanut protein contains a low lysine level, embodiments of Applicants"" invention containing a peanut butter filling may be fortified with an additional amino acid source rich in lysine, such as whey protein, which results in a product having an amino acid score of 1.00.
Fat
The American diet currently averages approximately 34% of total caloric intake from fat and approximately 12% of calories from saturated fat (Garrison, R. and Somer, E., The Nutrition Desk Reference, 3rd edition, 1995, Keats Publishing, New Cannan, Conn.). Dietary fat intake is important because of the relationship between excessive fat and calorie intake to obesity and the incidence of certain chronic diseases, such as coronary heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and certain types of cancer, that are among the leading causes of death in the United States and other industrialized countries (The Surgeon General""s Report on Nutrition and Health, 1988, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Publication No. 88-50210, Washington, D.C.; National Research Council, 1989, Diet and Health: Implications for Reducing Chronic Disease Risk, The Committee on Diet and Health, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.). The level of dietary fat intake, particularly saturated fat and cholesterol, is strongly linked to the risk of cardiovascular disease and mortality from coronary events. In addition, research has demonstrated a relationship between the level of total fat and saturated fat consumption and the risk of cancers of the digestive tract and endocrine system (e.g., colorectal, breast, and prostate cancers) (Garrison and Somer, 1995).
Based on the relationship between fat intake and the chronic diseases mentioned above, various professional health organizations (e.g. American Heart Association; American Cancer Society; National Cancer Institute; United States Department of Agriculture) have proposed dietary guidelines stating that the percent of total caloric intake from fat be reduced to less than 30% and the percent of calories from saturated fat decreased to less than 10%. This translates to approximately 3 g or less of digestible fat and 1 g or less of digestible saturated fat per 100 kcal of energy intake.
Embodiments of Applicants"" invention have less than 30% of their total caloric value derived from one or more fats; in other embodiments, from 2% to 27% of each embodiments"" total caloric value is derived from one or more fats; in still other embodiments, from 10% to 27% of each embodiment""s total caloric value is derived from one or more fats; and in still other embodiments, from 15% to 27% of each embodiments"" total caloric value is derived from one or more fats.
Additional embodiments of Applicants"" invention have less than 18% of their total caloric value derived from one or more saturated fats; in other embodiments, from 1% to 9% of each embodiments"" total caloric value is derived from one or more saturated fats; in still other embodiments, from 3% to 9% of each embodiments"" total caloric value is derived from one or more saturated fats; and in still other embodiments, 5% to 9% of each embodiments"" total caloric value is derived from one or more saturated fats.
In order to meet the low-fat requirements for a balanced nutritional profile, the digestible fat levels of most foods must be reduced significantly. However, low levels of fat in a crumb structure result in a very dry product during mastication. Also, in an anhydrous (oil continuous) filling, low fat formulations result in very dry, stiff fillings, with poor mouth melt. When the digestible fat level of a product is reduced, the product""s texture and taste can be improved by replacing the digestible fat with non-digestible lipids, partially digestible lipids or mixtures thereof on a weight percent to weight percent basis. When the use of non-digestible lipids, partially digestible lipids or mixtures thereof is precluded by regulatory or processing concerns, water continuous fillings, such as fruit fillings having water activities of less than 0.80 may be used to enhance lubricity and thus the texture and taste of the product. For example, the taste system of a filled bar, wherein the crumb contains less than 3.0 grams of triglyceride fat per serving, can be improved by selecting a water continuous filling. When a non-perishable product is desired, it is preferred that the filling""s water activity be sufficiently low to prevent the growth of most pathogenic and spoilage bacteria.
When water based fillings cannot be used, and the product is substantially anhydrous, the product""s taste may be substantially improved by a continuous phase that comprises a glassy structure below its transition point. It is preferred that the glassy structure comprise sugars, polysaccharides and mixtures thereof, rather than starches that have a fast mouth melt. For example, a snack crisp structure is formed by a non-traditional composition that is low in fat, and high in protein and dietary fiber. The snack crisp contains none of the traditional structure forming components such as flour or starches. It is based on a continuous phase of an amorphous glass that is interrupted by particles of dietary fiber and protein isolates. These normally unpalatable ingredients are enclosed within an amorphous glass structure having a crispy-crunchy texture and a quick mouth melt. The amorphous glass may be formed by a variety of sugars or maltodextrin combinations. The resulting forms range from very sweet to savory. Flavors and xe2x80x9cbitsxe2x80x9d may be added topically, or be contained within the structure. The snack crisp structure may be attained by baking, or by extrusion, followed by a baking or drying step. The snack crisp provides a tasty, nutritionally balanced food that is capable of contributing high levels of dietary fiber and protein to a diet.
Fats that can be used to produce the nutritional compositions of the present invention may include or be derived from, but are not limited to, vegetable oils and fats, lauric oils and fats, milk fat, animal fats, marine oils, partially-digestible and nondigestible oils and fats, surface-active lipids and mixtures thereof. Useful vegetable oils and fats include, but are not limited to, triacylglycerols based on C18 unsaturated fatty acids such as oleic acids, linoleic acids, linolenic acids and mixtures thereof. Non-limiting examples of useful unhydrogenated, partially-hydrogenated and fully-hydrogenated vegetable oils include oils derived or isolated from soybeans, safflowers, olives, corn, cottonseeds, palm, peanuts, flaxseeds, sunflowers, rice bran, sesame, rapeseed, cocoa butter and mixtures thereof.
Useful lauric oils and fats include, but are not limited to, triacylglycerols based on lauric acid having 12 carbons. Non-limiting examples of useful lauric oils and fats include coconut oil, palm kernel oil, babassu oil and mixtures thereof.
Useful animal fats include, but not are not limited to, lard, beef tallow, egg lipids, intrinsic fat in muscle tissue and mixtures thereof.
Useful marine oils include, but are not limited to, triacylglycerols based on omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids such as docosahexanoic acid C22:6. Non-limiting examples of useful marine oils include menhaden oil, herring oil and mixtures thereof.
Useful partially-digestible and non-digestible oils and fats include, but are not limited to, polyol fatty acid polyesters, structured triglycerides, plant sterols and sterol esters, other non-digestible lipids such as esterified propoxylated glycerin (EPG), and mixtures thereof. Useful polyol fatty acid polyesters include, but are not limited to, sucrose polyesters, which are sold under the trade name of Olean(trademark) by the Procter and Gamble Company of Cincinnati, Ohio U.S.A. Non-limiting examples of useful structured triglycerides include caprenin, salatrim and mixtures thereof. Non-limiting examples of useful plant sterols and sterol esters include sitosterol, sitostanol, campesterol and mixtures thereof.
Partially-digestible and non-digestible oils and fats are particularly useful as they impart little or no calories to a food product and can impart a hypocholesterolemic capability to foods that incorporate said fats and oils. Examples of partially-digestible and non-digestible oils and fats that can provide a food with a hypocholesterolemic capability include, by way of example, sucrose polyesters which are sold under the trade name of Olean(trademark) by the Procter and Gamble Company of Cincinnati, Ohio U.S.A. (See e.g., Glueck, C. J., Jandacek, R. J., Hogg, E., Allen, C., Baehler, L., and Tewksbury, M. (1983) Sucrose polyester: substitution for dietary fats in hypocaloric diets in the treatment of familial hypercholesterolemial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 37, 347-354) and plant sterols and plant sterol esters (See Mattson, F. H., Grundy, S. M., and Crouse, J. R. (1982) Optimizing the effect of plant sterols on cholesterol absorption in man. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 35, 697-700; U.S. Pat. No. 3,751,569, B. A. Erickson, Clear cooking and salad oils having hypocholesterolemic properties); Westrate, J. A., and Meijer, G. W. (1998) Plant sterol-enriched margarines and reduction of plasma total- and LDL-cholesterol concentrations in normocholesterolemic and mildly hypercholesterolemic subjects. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 52, 334-343).
The preferred nondigestible lipid is Olean(trademark), which is sold by the Procter and Gamble Company of Cincinnati, Ohio U.S.A. Preferred partially digestible lipids are structured triglycerides comprising a combination of fluid chain fatty acids (i.e., short-chain saturated or unsaturated fatty acids) with long-chain, saturated fatty acids (chain lengths of C18-C24). An example of a partially digestible lipid is caprenin (Procter and Gamble Company, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.), which is a structured triglyceride comprised of octanoic acid (C8:0), decanoic acid (C10:0), and behenic acid (C22:0). Other examples are the reduced calorie triglycerides described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,419,925 (Seiden et al., assigned to The Procter and Gamble Company, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.), which are triglycerides comprised of short chain-length, saturated fatty acids (C6:0-C10:0) and long chain-length, saturated fatty acids (C18:0-C24:0). Another example of partially digestible lipids are the salatrim family of low calorie fats developed by the Nabisco Foods Group (East Hanover, N.J.). The salatrim low-calorie fats are triglycerides comprised of short chain fatty acid residues (C2:0-C4:0) and long chain, saturated fatty acids (C16:0-C22:0); see Smith et al., xe2x80x9cOverview of Salatrim, a Family of Low-Calorie Fatsxe2x80x9d, J. Agric. Food Chem., 42:432-434, (1994); and Softly et al., xe2x80x9cComposition of Representative Salatrim Fat Preparationsxe2x80x9d, J. Agric. Food Chem., 42:461-467, (1994). Salatrim is available under the brand name, Benefat(trademark), from Cultor Food Science (Ardsley, N.Y.). Benefat(trademark) is a specific component of the salatrim family, comprising acetic (C2:0), proprionic (C3:0), butyric (C4:0), and stearic (C18:0) acids.
Useful surface active lipids are amphiphilic molecules that may be purposefully added to food compositions for their functional performance or to enhance processability. Although these ingredients are adjunct ingredients, they will be detected as digestible fat by Applicants"" analytical methods. Examples of surface active lipids are emulsifying agents, which are surface active lipids that stabilize oil-in-water or water-in-oil emulsions by orienting at the oil/water interface and reducing the interfacial tension; and foaming agents, which are surfactants that orient at the gas-water interface to stabilize foams. Surface active lipids may also be added as an inherent component of a food ingredient, such as the phospholipids found in soybean oil and egg yolks (e.g., lecithin). In addition, surface active lipids may be formed in the food as a result of the processing. For example, free fatty acids are formed in frying oils as a result of hydrolysis of the triglycerides and these fatty acids will be transferred to the fried food along with the oil that is transferred to the food.
Useful surface-active agents include, but are not limited to, free fatty acids, monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids, sucrose esters, sorbitan esters, polyoxyethylene sorbitan esters, diacetyl tartaric acid esters, polyglycerol esters and mixtures thereof.
Carbohydrate
As used herein, the term xe2x80x9ccarbohydratexe2x80x9d refers to the total amount of sugar alcohols, monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, digestible, partially digestible and non-digestible polysaccharides; and lignin or lignin like materials that are present in the embodiments of the present invention.
Carbohydrates that can be incorporated into the present invention may include, but are not limited to, monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, sugar alcohols and mixtures thereof. Non-limiting examples of useful monosaccharides include: tetroses such as erythrose; pentoses such as arabinose, xylose, and ribose; and hexoses such as glucose (dextrose), fructose, galactose, mannose, sorbose and tagatose.
Non-limiting examples of useful disaccharides include: sucrose, maltose, lactose and cellobiose.
Non-limiting examples of useful oligosaccharides include: fructooligosaccharide; maltotriose; raffinose; stachyose; and corn syrup solids (maltose oligomers with n=4-10).
Useful polysaccharides include, but are not limited to, digestible polysaccharides and non-digestible polysaccharides. Non-limiting examples of useful digestible polysaccharides include starches that are isolated or derived from cereal grains, legumes, tubers and roots; maltodextrins obtained by the partial hydrolysis of starch; glycogen and mixtures thereof. Non-limiting examples of useful starches include flours from cereals, legumes, tubers and roots; native, unmodified starches, pre-gelatinized starches, chemically modified starches, high amylose starches, waxy starches; and mixtures thereof.
Useful non-digestible polysaccharides may be water-soluble or water-insoluble. Non-limiting examples of useful water-soluble or predominately water-soluble, non-digestible polysaccharides include: oat bran; barley bran; psyllium; pentosans; plant extracts such as pectins, inulin, and beta-glucan soluble fiber; seed galactomannans such as guar gum, and locust bean gum; plant exudates such as gum arabic, gum tragacanth, and gum karaya; seaweed extracts such as agar, carrageenans, alginates, and furcellaran; cellulose derivatives such as carboxymethylcellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and methylcellulose; microbial gums such as xanthan gum and gellan gum; hemicellulose; polydextrose; and mixtures thereof. Non-limiting examples of water-insoluble, and predominately water-insoluble, non-digestible polysaccharides include cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, brans, resistant starch, and mixtures thereof.
Useful sugar alcohols include, but are not limited to, glycerol, sorbitol, xylitol, mannitol, maltitol, propylene glycol, erythritol and mixtures thereof.
Fiber
Dietary fiber comprises the food components derived from plant material, or analogous carbohydrates, that are resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine. This includes various polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, polyfructans, and lignins that are resistant to digestion. The term analogous carbohydrates refers to carbohydrate compounds that may not be specifically derived from plant material, but that are resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine (e.g., a synthetic non-digestible polysaccharide or oligosaccharide, such as polydextrose). Many fiber constituents are carbohydrates, such as cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, guar gum and beta-glucan soluble fiber. Lignin, a component of the woody structure of plants, is not considered a classical carbohydrate; however, it is non-digestible and is included in the measurement of total dietary fiber. Thus, for purposes of Applicants"" invention, lignin and lignin like materials are classified as carbohydrates.
Dietary fibers may be further classified into water-soluble (e.g., pectin, guar, beta-glucan soluble fiber) and insoluble (e.g., cellulose) fractions. The current average intake of dietary fiber in the United States is approximately 10 g/day. Recommendations from health professionals are to increase consumption of fiber-rich foods in order to achieve a daily fiber intake of approximately 25-35 grams (Garrison and Somer, 1995). The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has specified the Daily Reference Value for dietary fiber for use on food labels as 25 g/day (based upon a 2,000 kcal/day diet) (Code of Federal Regulations; 21 CFR xc2xa7101.9). Foods that provide at least 2.5 g dietary fiber per serving may be claimed as a xe2x80x9cgood sourcexe2x80x9d of fiber. A high fiber intake is believed to be beneficial for reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases, colorectal cancer, constipation, diverticulosis, and other gastrointestinal disorders. For example, certain soluble fibers such as pectin, guar gum, psyllium, and beta-glucan soluble fiber have been shown to provide heart health benefits by reducing serum total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (Brown, L. et al., Am J Clin Nutr, 1999, 69:30-42). While not being limited by theory, the mechanism for this effect is believed to be related to soluble fiber""s impact on viscosity of the digesta in the small intestine; i.e., a significant increase in digesta viscosity reduces the reabsorption of bile acids. In addition, certain soluble fibers are partially or completely fermented by microorganisms in the large intestine, producing short-chain fatty acids (acetic, propionic, butyric acids) which are absorbed and may provide an inhibitory effect on cholesterol synthesis in the liver. Again, while not being limited by theory, high fiber diets, particularly those high in insoluble fiber, are believed to reduce the incidence of colon and rectal cancers by promoting an increased transit rate of potential carcinogens through the intestinal tract, diluting the concentration of carcinogenic agents through increased water retention in the stool, and possibly by binding toxic compounds and promoting their elimination.
Furthermore, choosing a diet that is moderate in sugar content was one of the recommendations in the most recent publication of Dietary Guidelines for Americans (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 4th edition, 1995). An individual can reduce their sugar intake by eating protein and dietary fiber enriched foods, as the percentage of carbohydrates, and possibly simple sugars, in these foods is reduced. Protein and fiber enriched foods may also benefit diabetics as they must carefully monitor their total carbohydrate intake. Thus, protein and fiber-enriched foods that are relatively low in total carbohydrate content may be a useful addition to their overall dietary plan. An elevated fiber content also benefits diabetics by helping manage blood glucose levels (glycemic control) and postprandial insulin levels (Anderson, J. W. and Akanji, A. O., 1993, in CRC Handbook of Dietary Fiber in Human Nutrition, 2nd edition, G. A. Spiller, ed., CRC Press).
Thus, based on the previous detailed description of the health benefits of dietary fibers, it is clear that a nutritionally balanced food must contain, as do embodiments of Applicants"" invention, at least about 2.5 grams of dietary fiber per reference serving. Other embodiments of Applicants"" invention contain from about 2.5 grams to about 5.0 grams of dietary fiber per reference, while still other embodiments of Applicants"" invention contain about 2.5 grams to about 3.5 grams of dietary fiber per reference serving.
The dietary fiber used in Applicants"" invention comprises from 0% to 100% by weight soluble dietary fiber and from 0% to 100% by weight insoluble dietary fiber. In certain embodiments of Applicants"" invention, said dietary fiber comprises from 50% to 100% by weight soluble dietary fiber and from 0% to 50% by weight insoluble dietary fiber. In still other embodiments of Applicants"" invention, said dietary fiber comprises from 70% to 100% by weight soluble dietary fiber and from 0% to 30% by weight insoluble dietary fiber.
Although dietary fiber is a critical component of a nutritionally balanced food, dietary fiber can have adverse effects on taste due to off-flavors that are inherent in fiber sources and the negative textural properties that dietary fiber sources can impart to foods. This is particularly true when fat is replaced with dietary fiber. As a result of Applicants"" work, Applicants have discovered that the off-flavors that dietary fibers impart can be minimized by selecting fiber sources having high active levelsxe2x80x94active levels of at least 75% are preferred. Also, Applicants have discovered that, for insoluble dietary fibers, key levers affecting taste are particle size and water absorption. Applicants have determined that, in order to avoid producing finished foods having gritty textures, insoluble dietary fibers having particle sizes of less than about 150 microns, and more preferably less than about 50 microns, should be used. In addition, in order to avoid dryness due to saliva absorption during mastication, it is preferred that the water absorption of insoluble dietary fibers be less than about 7.0 grams water per gram of fiber and most preferably less than about 3.5 grams of water per gram of fiber. Examples of insoluble dietary fibers having an active level of at least 75%, a particle size less than 150 microns, preferably less that 50 microns and a water absorption of less than about 7.0 grams water per gram of fiber include: Vitacel(copyright) wheat fiber WF-600/30 from J. Rettenmaier and Sohne Gmbh+Co. of Ellwangen/J., Federal Republic of Germany and Centara III pea fiber which can be obtained from Parrheim Foods Portage La Prairie, Manitoba, Canada.
In addition to researching insoluble dietary fibers, Applicants have researched soluble dietary fibers. As a result of this research, Applicants have discovered that, when soluble dietary fibers are in the presence of liquids like saliva, the key lever affecting taste is viscosity. Many dietary fibers have considerable thickening effects when combined with water/saliva. Thickened fillings or thickening that occurs during mastication can produce unpleasant textures, slow mouth melts, and slow the rate of flavor display. In order to avoid undesired thickening, a viscosity effect similar to that of sucrose is preferred. Thus, the viscosity at 25xc2x0 C. should be less than about 1-2 centipoise for a 10% solution, and less than about 200 centipoise for a 50% solution. It is also preferable that the viscosity remain close to Newtonian. Soluble dietary fibers having an active level of at least 75% and a viscosity effect that is similar to sucrose include: maltodextrin dietary fibers such as Fibersol 2 which has an active level (total dietary fiber) of 85% and a viscosity of xcx9c1.5 cp for a 10% solution and which can be obtained from Matsutani Chemical Industry C., Ltd. of Itam-city Hyogo, Japan; and arabinogalactan dietary fibers such as Fiberaid(copyright) which has an active level (total dietary fiber) of 85% and a viscosity of xcx9c2.0 cp for a 10% solution and which can be obtained from Larex Inc. of White Bear Lake, Minn.
Oat bran dietary fiber, such as Oatcor Oat Bran Concentrate (The Quaker Oats Co. Chicago, Ill.) which is rich in beta-glucan soluble fiber (11.5%), is another preferred fiber as it can provide a heart health/cholesterol lowering benefit when present at a level sufficient to provide 0.75 g beta-glucan soluble fiber per 40 gram serving level. The amount of oat bran dietary fiber needed to provide 0.75 g beta-glucan soluble fiber per 40 gram serving level can be determined by determining the amount of beta-glucan soluble fiber per mass unit of oat bran dietary fiber, using the beta-glucan soluble fiber analysis method found in Applicants"" Analytical Protocols. Once the amount of beta-glucan soluble fiber per mass unit of oat bran dietary fiber is known, one skilled in the art can calculate how much oat bran dietary fiber to incorporate in a product to achieve the desired level of beta-glucan soluble fiber.
Applicants have also discovered that, for soluble dietary fibers in predominately anhydrous foods, key levers affecting taste are particle size, water absorption, and dissolution rates. If the dissolution rate, which is analogous to the rate of hydration, is too slow, soluble fibers having particle sizes greater than 50 microns and most particularly from 50 to 200 microns, will impart a gritty, dry texture to foodsxe2x80x94these undesirable textural characteristics are especially noticeable when the fiber is used at a level of more than about 1 gram per serving, and most particularly noticeable above about 2.5 grams per serving. Soluble fibers, especially when present with insoluble fibers or other surrounding matrixes, can swell upon hydration and absorb high amounts of water. During mastication, this effect increases the dryness impression and viscosity of the food and thus detracts from a food""s flavor display. The resulting dryness impression and increase in viscosity is sensed as an unpleasant thick and often slimy texture that has a poor flavor display. Again, dryness and viscosity issues can be minimized, thus an overall taste improvement can be realized, by selecting soluble fibers that have a minimal viscosity effect, and a dissolution rate as similar as possible to the rate of sucrose. The rates of dissolution can be compared by observing the dissolution rate of 1 teaspoon soluble fiber in 250 ml of water at 25xc2x0 C. versus 1 teaspoon sucrose in 250 m of water at 25xc2x0 C. The fiber and sugar are slowly added simultaneously to their respective aliquots of water with gentle stirring.
Adjunct Ingredients
Adjunct ingredients are necessary for processing and structural development of most foods. Examples of typical adjunct ingredients include processing aids, emulsifiers, and leavening agents. As known by those skilled in the art, the required adjunct ingredients that are needed to produce foods vary by food type. Selection of the appropriate type and level of adjunct is easily determined by one skilled in the art as said information is available in reference sources. For example, it is well known that crackers rely heavily on processing aids and leavening agents. Leavening agents provide the internal expansion or rise of the product during baking. Crackers without leavening would be thin and dense and would have an unpleasant eating quality. Processing aids such as reductants and enzymes are required either singularly or in combination to allow adequate machining (i.e., dough sheeting and die cutting), and/or development of necessary structure. They are believed to function by breaking bonds in the gluten complex of the dough (i.e., disulfide cross-linkages and peptide bonds).
In addition, it is known by those skilled in the art that extruded snacks utilize emulsifiers, and may use leavening agents. The role of the emulsifier is to aid in processing (for example sheeting dough) and the formation of the internal product structure.
It is also known that cookies rely heavily on the use of leavening agents and emulsifiers. Other baked goods such as brownies, muffins, snack cakes, and pastries also rely on leavening agents and emulsifiers to achieve their desired structure. Snack cakes are at the high end of functionality, as they require the most care in the choice and blends of leavening agents and emulsifiers to achieve their tender highly cellular structure. Brownies are generally at the lower end of functionality, as they typically have a more dense structure.
Finally, it is known that fillings generally require the use of an emulsifier or whipping agent to aid in processing, texture formation, and mouth melt. For example, peanut butter based fillings may utilize an emulsifier to aid in particle dispersion during processing. Emulsifiers are also used in confectionery fillings to aid in the creation of textures and improve mouth melt. For example, chocolate uses an emulsifier to reduce the level of cocoa butter fat required in its final composition. Some fillings (nougats) utilize whipping agents to incorporate air into the filling in order to attain a desired texture and mouth melt.
Although the type and level of adjunct ingredients that are needed to produce any specific food product is known by those skilled in the art, Applicants have provided a number of examples wherein the type and level of adjunct ingredients used to produce a variety of foods is listed.
Additional Ingredients
Additional ingredients that may be incorporated in Applicants"" invention include natural and synthetically prepared flavoring agents, non-caloric sweeteners, bracers, flavanols, natural and synthetically prepared colors, preservatives, acidulants, and food stability anti-oxidants. A flavoring agent is recommended for the embodiments of this invention in order to further enhance their taste. As used herein the term xe2x80x9cflavoring agentsxe2x80x9d encompass seasonings and spices. Flavors may be added to the initial formulation, or be added topically after the product is produced. Any natural or synthetic flavor agent can be used in the present invention. Fruit flavors, natural botanical flavors, and mixtures thereof can be used as the flavoring agent. Particularly preferred savory flavors are grain based, spice based, and buttery type flavors. Besides these flavors, a variety of sweet flavors such as chocolate, praline, caramel and other fruit flavors can be used such as apple flavors, citrus flavors, grape flavors, raspberry flavors, cranberry flavors, cherry flavors and the like. These fruit flavors can be derived from natural sources such as fruit juices and flavor oils, or else be synthetically prepared. Preferred natural flavors are aloe vera, ginseng, ginkgo, hawthorn, hibiscus, rose hips, chamomile, peppermint, fennel, ginger, licorice, lotus seed, schizandra, saw palmetto, sarsaparilla, safflower, St. John""s Wort, curcuma, cardamom, nutmeg, cassia bark, buchu, cinnamon, jasmine, haw, chrysanthemum, water chestnut, sugar cane, lychee, bamboo shoots and the like. Typically the flavoring agents are conventionally available as concentrates or extracts or in the form of synthetically produced flavoring esters, alcohols, aldehydes, terpenes, sesquiterpenes, and the like. When used in any embodiment, flavoring agents are added in effective levels.
Regardless of the flavoring agent, Applicants recognized that both olfactory and gustatory flavors display best when the interfacial area within the saliva is maximized. This occurs when flavor bearing particles are effectively broken down during mastication This results in a more rapid partitioning of the flavors into the mouth""s saliva and head space where the flavors can be sensed. This effect can be dependent on or enhanced by the food""s mouth melt.
Applicants also recognized that the transfer of flavors to the headspace is greatly facilitated by the flavor compounds first partitioning into the aqueous phase or saliva in the mouth. While not being bound by theory, this is believed to be due to the higher volatility, from water to air versus oil to air, of relatively non-polar flavors. An exception to this is a water continuous food system containing flavors. Otherwise, these flavor compounds usually reside predominately in the oil or solid phases of a food. Initially, a food""s solids can either physically or chemically bind these flavors. The olfactory flavor compounds are usually released and detected by the olfactory system at different rates. This is why some flavors are sensed early in the eating experience, and others later. It is usually the overall perception of the release of these many compounds, over time in the mouth that produces the characteristic olfactory flavor responses, for example, chocolate or buttery.
Effective levels of non-caloric sweeteners can be used in all embodiments of the present invention to further sweeten said embodiments. Examples of non-caloric sweeteners include sucralose, aspartame, saccharin, cyclamates, acesulfame-K, L-aspartyl-L-phenylalanine lower alkyl ester sweeteners, L-aspartyl-D-alanine amides as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,411,925 to Brennan, et al (1983), L-aspartyl-D-serine amides disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,399,163 to Brennan et al (1983), L-aspartyl-hydroxymethyl alkane amide sweeteners disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,338,346 issued to Brand (1982), L-aspartyl-1-hydroxyethylalkane amide sweeteners disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,423,029 to Rizzi (1983), glycyrrhizins, synthetic alkoxy aromatics, etc. Lo Han Guo juice, stevioside and other natural sources of sweeteners can also be used.
Bracers are another class of optional ingredients that may be incorporated in the present invention. Bracers can be obtained by extraction from a natural source or can be synthetically produced. Any bracer used in any embodiment of the present invention is preferably present in physiologically relevant amounts, which means that the sources used in the practice of this invention provide a safe and effective quantity to achieve mental refreshment and alertness. The methylxanthines: caffeine, theobromine and theophylline, are well known examples of bracers. However, numerous other xanthine derivatives have been isolated or synthesized. See, for example, Bruns, Biochem. Pharmacol., 30, 325-333, (1981), describing more than one hundred purine bases and structurally related heterocycles relative to xanthine. One or more of these compounds are present in the coffee bean, tea, kola nut, cacao pod, mate, yaupon, guarana paste and yoco. Natural plant extracts are the preferred sources of bracers as they may contain other compounds that delay the bioavailability of the bracer; thus they may provide mental refreshment and alertness without jitters. The most preferred methylxanthine is caffeine. Caffeine can be obtained from the aforementioned plants and their waste or else synthetically prepared. Preferred botanical sources of caffeine that may be used as a complete or partial source of caffeine include green tea, guarana, mate, black tea, cola nuts, cocoa and coffee. Green tea, guarana and mate are the most preferred botanical sources of caffeine. Guarana functions in a manner similar to green tea. Thus, guarana may be used to decrease the bioavailability of caffeine, thereby reducing or eliminating the caffeine jitters. Mate may have the additional benefit of an appetite suppressing effect and may be included for this purpose as well.
Another class of optional ingredients that may be incorporated in the present invention are flavanols. Flavanols are natural substances present in a variety of plants (e.g. fruits, vegetables, flowers). The flavanols used in the present invention can be extracted from fruit, vegetables, green tea or other natural sources by any suitable method well known to those skilled in the art. For example, extraction with ethyl acetate or chlorinated solvents is one way to isolate flavanols from green tea; or, they may be prepared by synthetic or other appropriate chemical methods. Flavanols, including catechin, epicatechin, and their derivatives, are commercially available.
Flavanols may be extracted from either a single plant or mixtures of plants. The preferred flavanols are extracted from plants, e.g. green tea and related plants. Many fruits, vegetables, and flowers contain flavanols but to a lesser degree. Plants containing flavanols are known to those skilled in the art. Examples of the most common flavanols, which are extracted from tea plants, and other members of the catechu gambir (Uncaria family) are catechin, epicatechin, gallocatechin, epigallocatechin, epicatechin gallate, epigallocatechin gallate.
The preferred source of flavanols is green tea. Green tea, and in particular the flavanols present in green tea, when incorporated into a food, may delay the bioavailability of caffeinexe2x80x94thus reducing or eliminating the caffeine jitters.
The flavanols used in all embodiments of the present invention can be in the form of a tea extract. The tea extract can be obtained from the extraction of unfermented teas, fermented teas, partially fermented teas and mixtures thereof. Preferably the tea extracts are obtained from the extraction of unfermented and partially fermented teas. The most preferred tea extracts are obtained from green tea. Both hot and cold extracts can be used in the present invention. Suitable methods for obtaining tea extracts are well know; See, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,879,733 to Ekanayake, issued Mar. 9, 1999; U.S. 4,935,256 to Tsai, issued Jun. 1990; U.S. Pat. No. 4,680,193 to Lunder, issued July 1987; and U.S. Pat. No. 4,668,525 to Creswick, issued May 26, 1987.
Embodiments of the present invention may optionally be fortified with vitamins and minerals. The U.S. Recommended Dietary Allowances (U.S. RDA) are a set of nutrient standards established by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences (Food and Nutrition Board, 1989, Recommended Dietary Allowances, 10 ed., National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.). The RDA""s for vitamins and minerals represent the average daily intake considered adequate to meet the nutritional needs of most healthy individuals in the United States. The RDA for a particular vitamin or mineral varies depending on age, gender, and physiological state (e.g., pregnant, lactating). The Reference Daily Intakes (RDI) for vitamins and minerals were established by the Food and Drug Administration to reflect the average nutrient allowances for adults and are used for nutrition labeling on food products in the United States. Embodiments of the present invention may optionally contain vitamins selected from the group consisting of vitamins A, D, E, K, C (ascorbic acid), thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin Bxe2x88x926, folate, vitamin Bxe2x88x9212, biotin, and pantothenic acid. These vitamin sources are preferably present in nutritionally relevant amounts, which means that the vitamin sources used in the practice of this invention provide a nourishing amount of said vitamins. Preferably, this amount comprises at least about 1% of the U.S. RDA or RDI for said vitamin, more preferably from about 1% to about 100%, and most preferably from about 10% to about 100% of the U.S. RDA or RDI per 30 g reference serving of the finished product. Of course, it is recognized that the preferred daily intake of any vitamin may vary with the user, with greater than U.S. RDA or RDI intakes being beneficial in some circumstances.
In general, the U.S. RDA for vitamin A ranges from about 375 xcexcg RE (retinol equivalent) to about 1300 xcexcg RE, depending on age and physiological state (Food and Nutrition Board, 1989; Gregory, J. F., 1996, xe2x80x9cVitaminsxe2x80x9d, in Food Chemistry, 3rd ed., O. R. Fennema, ed.). The U.S. RDA for vitamin D ranges from about 5 xcexcg to about 10 xcexcg (as cholecalciferol). The U.S. RDA for vitamin E ranges from about 3 mg TE (xcex1-tocopherol equivalent) to about 12 mg TE. The U.S. RDA for vitamin K ranges from 5 xcexcg to 80 xcexcg. The U.S. RDA of vitamin C ranges from about 30 mg to about 95 mg. The U.S. RDA for thiamin ranges from about 0.3 mg to about 1.6 mg. The U.S. RDA for riboflavin ranges from about 0.4 mg to about 1.8 mg. The U.S. RDA for niacin ranges from about 5 mg to about 20 mg. The U.S. RDA for vitamin Bxe2x88x926 ranges from about 0.3 mg to about 2.2 mg. The U.S. RDA for folate ranges from about 25 xcexcg to about 400 xcexcg. The U.S. RDA for vitamin Bxe2x88x9212 ranges from about 0.3 ug to about 2.6 ug. The RDI""s established by the Food and Drug Administration for various vitamins are as follows (Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Section 101.9: Nutrition Labeling of Food, 21CFR 101.9, revised as of Apr. 1, 1999): Vitamin A=5,000 International Units (IU; equals 875 xcexcg RE); Vitamin D=400 IU (equals 6.5 xcexcg); Vitamin E=30 IU (equals 9 mg xcex1-tocopherol equivalents); Vitamin K=80 pg; Vitamin C=60 mg; thiamin=1.5 mg; riboflavin=1.7 mg; niacin=20 mg; Vitamin B6=2.0 mg; folate=400 xcexcg; Vitamin B12=6 xcexcg; 300 xcexcg; pantothenic acid=10 mg.
Vitamin A precursors (provitamin A, carotenoids) can also be used, including beta-carotene, alpha-carotene, xcex2-apo-8xe2x80x2 carotenal, cryptoxanthin and the like. The vitamin A esters (e.g., retinyl palmitate; retinyl acetate) and beta-carotene are highly preferred forms of vitamin A. Vitamin D can be selected from, for example, cholecalciferol (D3), ergocalciferol (D2), and their biologically active metabolites and precursors, such as 1-alpha-hydroxy vitamin D, 25-hydroxy vitamin D, 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D and the like. Vitamin D as cholecalciferol is highly preferred. All-rac alpha-tocopherol and RRR-alpha-tocopherol and their esters are highly preferred as a source for vitamins. Sources of vitamin E include dl-alpha tocopherol (all-rac) and its esters, such as dl-xcex1-tocopheryl acetate and succinate, dl-alpha-tocopherol (RRR) and its esters, d-alpha-tocopherol and its esters, beta-tocopherol, gamma-tocopherol, and their esters, tocopheryl nicotinate, and the like. Vitamin K can be selected from phylloquinone (K1), menaquinone (K2), menadione and their salts and derivatives. Vitamin K1 is highly preferred. L-ascorbic acid is particularly preferred as a vitamin C source for the present invention. However other forms of vitamin C, for example, D-ascorbic acid, D-dehydroascorbic acid, L-isoascorbic acid, L-dehydroascorbic acid, and esters of ascorbic acid (e.g., ascorbyl palmitate) may also be used. The hydrochloride and nitrate salts of thiamin and thiamin alkyl disulfides such as the prophyidisulfide, tetrahydrofurfuryl disulfide, O-benzoyl disulfide can be used in the present invention. The hydrochloride and nitrate salts of thiamin are highly preferred. The sources of riboflavin are selected, for example, from crystalline riboflavin coenzyme forms of riboflavin such as flavin adenine dinucleotide, flavin adenine mononucleotide, riboflavin 5xe2x80x2-phosphate and their salts. Riboflavin is highly preferred. Sources of niacin include nicotinic acid, nicotinamide, the coenzyme forms of niacin such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate. Particularly preferred are nicotinamide and nicotinic acid. Vitamin B6 can be selected from hydrochloride salts or 5xe2x80x2-phosphates of pyridoxine, pyridoxamine, and pyridoxal. The preferred vitamin B6 is pyridoxine hydrochloride. The folate can be in the form of folic acid, mono and polyglutamyl folates, dihydro and tetrahydro folates, and methyl and formyl folates. Folic acid is a highly preferred form of folate. Sources of vitamin Bxe2x88x9212 are, for example, cyanocobalamin, methylcobalamin, 5xe2x80x2-deoxy-adenosylcobalamin and the like. Cyanocobalamin is highly preferred. Sources of biotin can be selected from D-biotin, oxybiotin, biocytin, biotinol and the like. D-biotin and biocytin are highly preferred. For pantothenic acid, the sources can be in the form of salts such as calcium pantothenate or as panthenol, or in the form of coenzyme A. Calcium pantothenate is a highly preferred source of pantothenic acid.
Embodiments of the present invention may be fortified with minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, zinc, iodine, selenium, copper, manganese, fluoride, chromium, molybdenum, sodium, potassium, and chloride. The minerals sources are preferably present in nutritionally relevant amounts, which means that the mineral sources used in the practice of this invention provide a nourishing amount of said minerals. Preferably, this amount comprises at least about 1% of the U.S. RDA or RDI for these minerals, more preferably from about 1% to about 100%, and most preferably from about 10% to about 100% of the U.S. RDA or RDI per 30 g reference serving of the finished product. Of course, it is recognized that the preferred daily intake of any mineral may vary with the user, with greater than the U.S. RDA or RDI intakes being beneficial in some circumstances.
In general, the U.S. RDA for calcium ranges from 400 mg for infants to 1200 mg for adults (Food and Nutrition Board, 1989; Gregory, 1996). The U.S. RDA for phosphorus ranges from 300 mg to 1200 mg. The U.S. RDA for magnesium ranges from 40 mg to 400 mg. The U.S. RDA for iron ranges from 6 mg to 30 mg, depending somewhat on age and physiological state. The U.S. RDA for zinc ranges from 5 mg to 19 mg. The U.S. RDA for iodine ranges for 40 xcexcg to 200 xcexcg. The U.S. RDA for selenium ranges from 10 xcexcg to 75 xcexcg. There are no official U.S. RDA ranges specified for copper, manganese, chromium, molybdenum and fluoride. However, the Food and Nutrition Board has specified an estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake for copper of about 1.5-3.0 mg, for manganese of about 2.0-5.0 mg, for chromium of about 50-200 ug, and for molybdenum of about 75-250 ug. A safe and adequate range for fluoride is 1.5-4.0 mg (Food and Nutrition Board, 1989). There are no official U.S. RDA ranges specified for sodium, potassium and chloride. However, the Food and Nutrition Board has specified an estimated minimum requirement for chloride of 50-750 mg, depending upon age. The RDI""s established by the Food and Drug Administration for various minerals are as follows (Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Section 101.9: Nutrition Labeling of Food, 21 CFR xc2xa7 101.9, revised as of Apr. 1, 1999): calcium=1000 mg; phosphorus=1000 mg; iron=18 mg; zinc=15 mg; iodine=150 xcexcg; magnesium=400 mg; selenium=70 xcexcg; copper=2.0 mg; manganese=2.0 mg; chromium=120 xcexcg; molybdenum=75 xcexcg; and chloride=3,400 mg. The embodiments of the invention that comprise any of these latter minerals should employ levels known to be safe without risk of toxicity.
The source of the mineral salt, both those with established U.S. RDA levels or with safe and adequate intake levels, as well as those with no as yet established human requirement, used in the practice of this invention, can be any of the well known salts including carbonate, oxide, hydroxide, chloride, sulfate, phosphate, pyrophosphate, gluconate, lactate, acetate, fumarate, citrate, malate, amino acids and the like for the cationic minerals and sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and the like for the anionic minerals. However, the particular salt used and the level will depend upon their interaction with other food product ingredients. Elemental iron (electrolytic or reduced iron) is another preferred source of iron.
If desired, coloring agents can also be added to the food compositions of the present invention. Any soluble coloring agents approved for food use can be utilized for the present invention.
When desired, preservatives, such as sorbic acid, benzoic acid, hexametaphosphate and salts thereof, can be added into embodiments of the present invention.
Also, if desired, the composition can contain an acidulant including but not limited to malic, citric, tartaric, and fumaric acids and mixtures thereof.
Organic as well as inorganic edible acids may be used to adjust the pH of Applicants"" foods. The preferred acids are edible organic acids that include citric acid, malic acid, fumaric acid, adipic acid, phosphoric acid, gluconic acid, tartaric acid, and ascorbic acid.
Structural Parameters
A food""s flavor display and texture, and thus its taste, are dependent on the food""s composition and structural parameters. As a result, the structural parameters detailed below are important to realizing Applicants"" invention. Applicants"" teachings concern crumb and filling structural parameters as Applicants"" invention encompasses single and multiple phase nutritionally balanced foods.
Crumb Structures
Applicants recognized that the crumb structure of a food is central to the food""s texture and flavor display. A nutritionally balanced traditional snack""s crumb structure is particularly important, as much of the snack""s fat and sugarxe2x80x94key materials that can be used to create desired crumb structuresxe2x80x94are typically replaced with fiber and protein. In particular, Applicants have found that dense crumb structures result in poor mouth melt and flavor display. As a result, layered or cellular crumb structures are desirable as these structures have low densities. However, even layered or cellular structures can exhibit poor mouth melt if the cell walls are too thick, or too hard to allow good breakdown and hydration during mastication. Cell wall dimensions that result in acceptable textures and mouth melts are dependent on the particular food type. In general, for a given food type, texture and mouth melt can be improved by increasing cell size and decreasing cell wall thickness relative to the cell dimensions; provided the food""s structure does not become too expanded, as xe2x80x9cStyrofoam likexe2x80x9d structures result in negative textures for most products. Thus, for expanded extruded foods like corn curls, cell dimensions 10xc3x97 or greater than the cell walls dimensions are desired. Crackers should have layers (cell walls) of about the same thickness as the void space between the layers.
In some foods, such as for some cookies, the cells are not well defined visually, but exist as voids within the structure. Microscopically, this is analogous to a network of tunnels and caverns running uniformly throughout the food""s internal structure.
Most crumb structures have a glass transition point, as structure formers like starches and sugars exhibit a glass transition analogous to that of polymers. Below the transition point, the structure is a xe2x80x9cglassxe2x80x9d. Above the transition point, the structure becomes tough and rubbery, until it becomes soft and even xe2x80x9cliquid likexe2x80x9d at its extreme. The glass transition point of a starch and sugar-based food""s crumb structure is primarily determined by the structure""s degree of hydration. Specifically, for starch and sugar based foods, increasing the degree of hydration reduces the glass transition point of the crumb structure.
Below a snack""s glass transition point, the snack has a hard, crisp xe2x80x9cglassy structurexe2x80x9d. For Applicants"" cracker, cookie, and snack chip embodiments, a glassy structure is desired as it can impart the desired crispness that consumers expect. This is particularly true when the structural geometry (layers or cells) is optimized. While not to be bound by theory, it is believed that the crumb""s water activity, which is a function of water content for a given food type, determines the degree of crispness of the crumb.
For Applicants"" confection embodiments, such as granola bars, a tough, rubbery texture is desired. A tough, rubbery structure is obtained by low-moisture sugar continuous structures having a water activity of greater than 0.65. Here, the moisture level on a weight basis is less than or equal to approximately 20%.
Fluid or Semi-Solid Type Structures
Applicants recognized that when mastication is required, a good mouth melt is desired. Thus, Applicants have determined that the glass transition point is an important parameter for non-oil based filling structures. When a food""s non-oil based filling structure is below the glass transition point, it is very viscous and tough. As the filling""s structure moves through its glass transition point, it becomes less viscous and eventually, well above the glass transition point, extremely fluid. Applicants have found that for fillings, lubricity, mouth melt and flavor display can be improved if the filling""s structure is above its glass transition point. While the optimal degree of hydration and thus the degree to which the filling""s structure exceeds its transition point depends on the final product""s form, Applicants"" research has resulted in the following teachings: fruit fillings should be sufficiently hydrated so that they will be well above their glass transition pointxe2x80x94this requires at least a 20% moisture level on a filling""s weight basis; confectionery fillings such as caramel and nugget need only be somewhat above their glass transition pointxe2x80x94this requires a moisture level of from about 1% to about 10% on a weight basis; and, as a general rule, since it is desired that fillings made with ingredients such as cheese and peanut butter be anhydrous, these fillings do not have an applicable glass transition point.
Since xe2x80x9ctastexe2x80x9d represents complex perceptions that interpret chemical, physiological and psychological clues into the xe2x80x9clikesxe2x80x9d and xe2x80x9cdislikesxe2x80x9d of the foods we eat and since Applicants are unaware of any standard method for rating the overall result of the interaction of said complex perceptions, Applicants have developed a simple and precise method for rating a food product""s taste system. Applicants"" rating method is a comparative method wherein the taste system of a test product is compared relative to the taste system of a reference product. Panelists rate the overall taste of products selected from the group consisting of one or more reference products and one or more test products. The data from this rating session is then statistically treated, to generate, at one or more confidence levels, a confidence interval on the relative taste score for at least one test product. The confidence intervals have lower and upper bounds. These confidence intervals can then be used to compare the taste system of Applicants"" invention to the taste systems of food products that existed before Applicants"" invention or food products that are produced after the date of Applicants"" invention. The details of Applicants"" rating protocol are more fully described in the section of this application titled Taste Test Protocol 1.1.
Applicants"" claims encompass all products, having the nutritional profile claimed by Applicants and wherein the lower bound of the two-sided confidence interval about the relative taste score is greater than xcex2. Here, xcex2 is the upper bound of the 1-xcex1 two-sided-confidence interval about the relative taste score for the best scoring preexisting reference that has a nutritional profile that Applicants"" claims read on. Here, the likelihood that any pre-existing reference product has an overall taste that is superior to Applicants"" invention is at most 1-(1-xcex1/2)2. In short, Applicants"" taste limitation, as claimed, will read the overall taste of products having a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than xcex2.
At a 60% confidence level, embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 1.64. Other embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 15.46. Still other embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 23.84. Finally, other embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 23.84, and certain embodiments have an upper bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is less than 39.45.
At a 70% confidence level, embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 2.25. Other embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 16.09. Still other embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 24.43. Finally, other embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 24.43, and certain embodiments have an upper bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is less than 40.28.
At a 80% confidence level, embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 3.09. Other embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 16.87. Still other embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 25.18. Finally, other embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 25.18, and certain embodiments have an upper bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is less than 41.33.
At a 90% confidence level, embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 4.15. Other embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 18.05. Still other embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 26.28. Finally, other embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 26.28, and certain embodiments have an upper bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is less than 42.89.
At a 95% confidence level, embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 5.14. Other embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 19.06. Still other embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 27.25. Finally, other embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 27.25, and certain embodiments have an upper bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is less than 44.26.
At a 99% confidence level, embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 7.09. Other embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 21.07. Still other embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 29.14. Finally, other embodiments of Applicants"" invention have a lower bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is greater than 29.14, and certain embodiments have an upper bound for their confidence interval about the relative taste score that is less than 46.96.
Protocols used to determine the levels and types of amino acid source, fat, carbohydrate and fiber components, as well as the number and percent of calories from each component of Applicants"" invention, are as follows:
1. Amino acid content: The total amino acid or protein content of a food is calculated after measuring the percent nitrogen content of the food by the Kjeldahl digestion method. The Kjeldahl digestion method used is AOAC Official Method 979.09, xe2x80x9cProtein in Grainsxe2x80x9d (32.2.03; Chp. 32, pg. 23D).
a.) Percent amino acid or protein is calculated by multiplying the % nitrogen by a conversion factor of 6.25:
% amino acid or protein=% Nxc3x976.25
b.) The amino acid or protein content per a given mass of food is calculated as follows:
g amino acid or protein=(mass of food)xc3x97(% amino acid or protein/100)
c.) Calories from amino acid or protein are calculated by multiplying the grams amino acid or protein by 4:
Energy from amino acid or protein (kcal)=(g amino acid or protein)xc3x974 kcal/g
2. Amino Acid Chemical Score: The profile of essential amino acids in a food is measured after conducting an amino acid analysis on the product; see AOAC Official Method 994.12, xe2x80x9cAmino Acids in Feedsxe2x80x9d (4.1.11, Chp. 4, pg. 4-12). Amino acid analysis is carried out on a Beckman Model 6300 ion-exchange instrument following a 16 hour hydrolysis at 115xc2x0 C. in 6 N HCl, 0.2% phenol that also contains 2 nmol norleucine. The latter serves as an internal standard to correct for losses that may occur during sample transfers, drying, etc. After hydrolysis, the HCl is evaporated and the resulting amino acids dissolved in 100 xcexcl Beckman sample buffer that contains 2 nmol homoserine with the latter acting as a second internal standard to independently monitor transfer of the sample onto the analyzer. The instrument is calibrated with a 2 nmol mixture of amino acids and it is operated via the manufacturer""s programs and with the use of their buffers. Data analysis is carried out on an external computer using Perkin Elmer/Nelson data acquisition software.
During acid hydrolysis asparagine will be converted to aspartic acid and glutamine to glutamic acid. During the HPLC analysis that follows, cysteine co-elutes with proline; and methionine sulfoxide, which is a common oxidation product found in peptides/proteins, co-elutes with aspartic acid. Hence, following normal acid hydrolysis, glutamine and asparagine are not individually quantified and it is possible that the methionine value will be low and that the aspartic acid and proline values will be somewhat high. Improved quantification of cysteine and methionine can be obtained by prior oxidation with performic acid, which converts both methionine and methionine sulfoxide to methionine sulfone and cysteine and cystine to cysteic acid. Generally, however, performic acid oxidation destroys tyrosine. Best quantification of tryptophan is obtained by hydrolysis with methanesulfonic acid (MSA) instead of hydrochloric acid. The procedure used in this instance is to carry out the hydrolysis with MSA for 16 hours at 115xc2x0 C. After hydrolysis, the sample is neutralized with 0.35 M NaOH and 100 xcexcl (50% of the sample) is then analyzed on the Beckman 6300.
To calculate the amino acid chemical score of a dietary amino acid source, the measured essential amino acid pattern of the food is compared to an ideal reference protein. The reference protein used is the recommended profile of essential amino acids (mg/g reference protein) for preschool children ages 2-5, as specified by the World Health Organization (WHO, 1985, Energy and Protein Requirements, WHO Technical Report Series 724, Geneva, 206 pp.). This ideal profile of essential amino acids is as follows:
The content of essential amino acids in a food (mg amino acid/g protein) is compared to the above ideal amino acid profile to identify the most limiting amino acid in the food; i.e., the amino acid in greatest deficit compared to the reference. The amino acid chemical score is then calculated based on the most limiting amino acid as follows:
Amino Acid Chemical Score=[mg limiting amino acid/g protein in food]/[mg same amino acid/g reference protein]
The amino acid chemical score of the protein or amino acid source in the food may be as high as 1.0, which would indicate that the nutritional quality of the amino acid source is equal to the ideal reference protein.
3. Digestible Fat and Digestible Saturated Fat: The content of total digestible fat and digestible saturated fat in a food is measured according to the published AOAC peer-verified method for quantifying fat in olestra-containing snack foods (JAOAC, 81, 848-868, 1998, xe2x80x9cDetermination of fat in olestra-containing savory snack products by capillary gas chromatographyxe2x80x9d, PVM 4:1995, AOAC International, Gaithersburg, Md.). The principle of this method involves extraction of the food product with chloroform-methanol solution, yielding a total lipid extract that contains the digestible fat and any non-digestible lipid. The lipid extract is hydrolyzed by lipase, yielding fatty acids from the digestible fat. The fatty acids are precipitated as calcium soaps and the isolated fatty acid soaps are converted back into fatty acids with hydrochloric acid and extracted into hexane. The isolated fatty acids are converted to methyl esters with boron trifluoride-methanol solution and quantified by capillary gas chromatography.
a.) The digestible fat and saturated fat content per a given mass of food is calculated as follows:
g digestible fat=(mass of food)xc3x97(% digestible fat/100)
g digestible saturated fat=(mass of food)xc3x97(% digestible saturated fat/100)
b.) Calories from digestible fat and saturated fat are calculated by multiplying by 9:
Energy from fat (kcal)=(g digestible fat)xc3x979 kcal/g
Energy form saturated fat (kcal)=(g digestible saturated fat)xc3x979 kcal/g
4. Carbohydrate: The total carbohydrate content of a food product is calculated by difference as follows:
a.) % Carbohydrate=100xe2x88x92(% amino acid source)xe2x88x92(% moisture)xe2x88x92(% total extractable lipid)xe2x88x92(% ash)
b.) The carbohydrate content per a given mass of food is calculated as follows:
g carbohydrate=(mass of food)xc3x97(% carbohydrate/100)
c.) Calories from carbohydrate are calculated as follows:
Energy from carbohydrate (kcal)=(g carbohydratexe2x88x92g dietary fiber)xc3x973.85 kcal/g
5. Moisture: The moisture content of a food is measured by the vacuum oven method known as AOAC Official Method 979.12, xe2x80x9cMoisture (Loss on Drying) in Roasted Coffeexe2x80x9d (30.1.20, Chp. 30, pg. 5).
6. Ash: The ash content of a food is measured after ignition in a furnace at xcx9c550xc2x0 C. This method is AOAC Official Method 923.03, xe2x80x9cAsh in Flourxe2x80x9d (32.1.05, Chp. 32, pg. 2).
7. Dietary Fiber Combination of AOAC Method for Total Dietary Fiber With the Enzymatic-HPLC Determination of Indigestible Maltodextrin in Foods (Combined AOAC Prosky-HPLC method)
I. Principle
This method to determine total dietary content in processed foods is a combination of the AOAC-Prosky method for total dietary fiber (AOAC 985.29) and a high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method for determining additional fiber from indigestible maltodextrin.
A sample is first analyzed for its total quantity of insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) and high molecular weight soluble dietary fiber (HMSDF) according to the AOAC method 985.29. A HPLC determination is conducted on the filtrate to obtain the quantity of low molecular weight soluble dietary fiber (LMSDF). The two values are combined to obtain the total dietary fiber value.
II. Scope
The combined AOAC Prosky-HPLC method determines total dietary fiber value of processed foods containing low molecular weight soluble dietary fiber. This method defines dietary fiber (DF) as indigestible saccharides with a degree of polymerization of 3, and higher than 3, after enzymatic hydrolysis.
III. Additional Apparatus Beyond AOAC method 985.29
IV. Additional Reagents beyond AOAC method 985.29
A). Distilled-Deionized (Dxe2x80x94D) water.
B). Mixed-bed ion exchange resin for each sample. Twenty (20) g of charged Amberlite IRA-67 (Sigma # A9960) and 20 g of charged Amberlite 200 (Sigma # 200) are mixed and used per sample or per column. (Must be charged and adequately rinsed with Dxe2x80x94D water.)
It is advantageous to activate large amounts of both Amberlite IRA-67 and Amerlite 200 resins. Use large columns. The resins are mixed in a ratio of 1:1, 20 g each, for each column or sample just before use.
1). Amberlite IRA-67. Fill large column with resin and determine approximate resin volume based on column dimensions. Wash resin with two (2) volumes of Dxe2x80x94D at the rate of 3 mL per min. Pass two (2) volumes of 3% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) through the resin at the rate of 3 mL per min. Remove NaOH with three (3) volumes of Dxe2x80x94D water passed through the resin at the rate of 3 mL per min. The resin is further washed with Dxe2x80x94D water at the rate of six (61) mL per min. Monitor pH of water eluent. The column is adequately washed of NaOH when a 7-8.8 pH value is obtained. (It takes approximately 6-8 hours to charge and rinse this resin)
2). Amberlite 200. Fill large column with resin and determine approximate resin volume based on column dimensions. Wash resin with two (2) volumes of Dxe2x80x94D at the rate of 3 mL per min. Pass two (2) volumes of 3% hydrochloric acid (HCl) through the resin at the rate of 3 mL per min. Remove HCl with three (3) volumes of Dxe2x80x94D water passed through the resin at the rate of 3 mL per in. The resin is further washed with Dxe2x80x94D water at the rate of six (6) mL per min. The column is adequately washed of HCl when a 4-7 pH value is obtained. (It takes 2-3 hrs to charge and rinse this resin.)
C). Sodium hydroxide (0.275 N).
D). Hydrochloric acid (0.325 N).
E). Glycerol (xe2x89xa799.5% purity). Glycerol stock solution: weigh 10 g glycerol into a small beaker. Quantitatively transfer to 1000 mL volumetric flask with repeated washes with Dxe2x80x94D water. Make to volume with Dxe2x80x94D water. It is important to measure or record the exact weight of the glycerol and again, taking care to weigh as close to 10 g as possible. Take purity and weight of glycerol into consideration when calculating final glycerol-standard concentration. (A glycerol standard solution having a concentration of 10 mg per mL is preferred.)
F). Dextrose, HPLC grade, high purity xe2x89xa799.5%.
V. Procedural Steps in Determining Total Dietary Fiber in Foods
A. Sample enzymatic hydrolysis and filtration: Follow AOAC method 985.29.
Each sample is prepared in duplicate. Two blank digestion determinations are also accomplished. These duplicate samples allow for corrections in subsequent residue weights for ash and protein.
This residue weight, less protein, ash, and blank residue represents the weight of the dietary fiber by AOAC-Prosky method. The blank residue value used in the previous calculation must be corrected for its protein and ash content.
B. Filtrate recovery and high performance liquid chromatograph analysis:
The filtrate from V(A) is quantitatively transferred to a 1,000 mL round bottom flask.
The liquid contents of the round bottomed flask are evaporated with a rotary evaporator to obtain a near dryness residue. Redissolve the residue in the round bottomed flask with a minimum amount of distilled-deionized (Dxe2x80x94D) water and transfer to a 50 mL volumetric flask. Add 10 mL of glycerol standard solution, 10 mg per mL, and make to volume with Dxe2x80x94D water (see preparation of glycerol stock solution).
The contents of the 50 mL volumetric flask are quantitatively transferred to a column (75 cmxc3x9715 mm ID) containing 20 grams each, thoroughly mixed, of the charged ion-exchange resins, Amberlite IRA-67 (Sigma # A9960) and Amberlite 200 (Sigma #200)2. The sample is washed through the column with 250 mL Dxe2x80x94D water at the rate of 0.8 mL per min.
The 250 mL eluent collected from the ion-exchange column is quantitatively transferred into a 500 mL round bottom flask. The contents are evaporated to near dryness and quantitatively transferred to a 10 mL volumetric flask. Transfer the sample to a 10 mL disposable syringe and filter through a 0.2 micron filter.
Inject 20 uL of the sample on the high performance liquid chromatograph. Perform the HPLC analysis on the filtrate using the following operating conditions.
Analytical Column: HPLC column, TSK-GEL G2500PWXL (size: 7.8 mm IDxc3x9730 cm), TOSOH CORPORATION equipped with guard column (or pre-column), TSK guard column PWXL (size: 6.0 mm IDxc3x974 cm), TOSOH CORPORATION.
Column temperature: 80xc2x0 C.
Mobile phase: Water (distilled-deionized and degassed)
Flow rate: 0.5 mL/min.
C. Determining the response factor for dextrose; dextrose is equivalent to soluble indigestible saccharides (i.e. Fibersol) in HPLC response.
1). The objective of this portion of the experiment is to obtain the accurate measurement of soluble indigestible saccharides in the digestion filtrate by HPLC. Each chromatograph must be evaluated or standardized for the RI response of soluble indigestible saccharides. This is accomplished using dextrose and glycerol.
2). The peak areas, representing concentration, obtained by HPLC analysis of equal amounts of soluble indigestible saccharides xe2x80x9ci.e. Fibersolxe2x80x9d and dextrose are equivalent. Glycerol is used as the internal standard but its peak area compared to the peak area of an equal amount of dextrose or Fibersol is not equivalent. A dextrose-glycerol standard curve is prepared to obtain a xe2x80x9cresponse factorxe2x80x9d to calculate the accurate amount of Fibersol or soluble indigestible saccharides in a chromatogram or sample.
3). Three solutions (i.e., volumetric flasks) containing the same amount of glycerol and three levels of dextrose are prepared. It is important to know and use the reported content (i.e., xe2x89xa799.5% purity) of both glycerol and dextrose standards.
Ten (10) g high purity glycerol is accurately weighed into a small beaker. (We use molecular biology grade glycerol with xe2x89xa799.5% purity.) The glycerol is quantitatively transferred to a 100 mL volumetric flask with Dxe2x80x94D water and made to volume with Dxe2x80x94D water. (Do not confuse this glycerol standard with that prepared and added to the sample before ion-exchange chromatography.) One-half (0.5), one (1) and (2) g of dextrose is accurately weighed into three separate 100 mL volumetric flasks. To each flask is added 10 mL of the glycerol standard solution (100 mg per mL) previously prepared. Each flask is made to volume with Dxe2x80x94D water. (These three flasks represent the standard solutions to calculate the xe2x80x9cresponse factorxe2x80x9d for dextrose that is used to determine the amount of soluble indigestible saccharides found in the HPLC chromatograms.)
4). Inject twenty (20) uL of each standard glycerol-dextrose solution. Obtain the values for the peak areas of dextrose and glycerol from the three chromatograms. The reciprocal of the slope obtained comparing the ratio of peak area of dextrose/peak area of glycerol (y-axis) to the ratio of the weight of dextrose/weight of glycerol (x-axis) is the xe2x80x9cresponse factorxe2x80x9d. Among laboratories, this xe2x80x9cresponse factorxe2x80x9d has been determined to be 0.83.       Response    ⁢          xe2x80x83        ⁢    factor    =      1          PA      ⁢              -            ⁢              dex        /        PA            ⁢              -            ⁢      gly      xc3x97      Wt      ⁢              -            ⁢              gly        /        Wt            ⁢              -            ⁢      dex      
PA-dex=peak area dextrose
PA-gly=peak area glycerol
Wt-dex=weight of dextrose in standard
Wt-gly=weight of glycerol in standard
VI. Calculations
A). All values used in calculations are in mg, except for percent (%) values. Each sample is assayed in duplicate resulting in two sample weights values, sample weight and sample weightxe2x80x2 (prime) and two blanks, blank and blankxe2x80x2(prime).
B). Calculate Total Fiber from AOAC (TF-AOAC) as per AOAC method 985.29. This value is the average of the two determinations.
C). Calculate percent (%) LMSDF as follows: Low molecular weight soluble dietary fiber (LMSDF) is soluble indigestible saccharides with a degree of polymerization of xe2x89xa73, after enzymatic hydrolysis.       Low    ⁢          xe2x80x83        ⁢    molecular    ⁢          xe2x80x83        ⁢    weight    ⁢          xe2x80x83        ⁢    soluble    ⁢          xe2x80x83        ⁢    dietary    ⁢          xe2x80x83        ⁢    fiber    =                              Peak          ⁢                      xe2x80x83                    ⁢          area          ⁢                      xe2x80x83                    ⁢          of          ⁢                      xe2x80x83                    ⁢          LMSDF                          Peak          ⁢                      xe2x80x83                    ⁢          area          ⁢                      xe2x80x83                    ⁢          of          ⁢                      xe2x80x83                    ⁢          glycerol                    xc3x97      mg      ⁢              xe2x80x83            ⁢      glycerol      ⁢              xe2x80x83            ⁢      standard      xc3x97      response      ⁢              xe2x80x83            ⁢      factor        =          mg      ⁢              xe2x80x83            ⁢      low      ⁢              xe2x80x83            ⁢      molecular      ⁢              xe2x80x83            ⁢      weight      ⁢              xe2x80x83            ⁢      soluble      ⁢              xe2x80x83            ⁢      dietary      ⁢              xe2x80x83            ⁢              fiber            ⁢              xe2x80x83            ⁢              (        LMSDF        )                  Percent    ⁢          xe2x80x83        ⁢          (      %      )        ⁢          xe2x80x83        ⁢    LMSDF    =            LMSDF              Sample        ⁢                  xe2x80x83                ⁢        Weight              xc3x97    100  
Repeat calculations for the duplicate sample (prime), % LMSDFxe2x80x2 using LMSDFxe2x80x2 and Sample Weightxe2x80x2
D). % Average Low Molecular Weight Soluble Dietary Fiber       %    ⁢          xe2x80x83        ⁢    ALMSDF    =                    %        ⁢                  xe2x80x83                ⁢        LMSDF            +              %        ⁢                  xe2x80x83                ⁢                  LMSDF          xe2x80x2                      2  
E). Percent (%) total dietary fiber
% TDF=% TFxe2x88x92AOAC+% ALMSDF
8. Soluble Dietary Fiber: The content of soluble dietary fiber in a food is calculated as follows:
(% soluble dietary fiber)=(% Dietary Fiber)xe2x88x92(% insoluble dietary fiber)
Percent Dietary Fiber is measured as described in method #7 above. The % insoluble dietary fiber content of a food is measured by the enzymatic-gravimetric method known as AOAC Official Method 991.42, xe2x80x9cInsoluble Dietary Fiber in Food and Food Productsxe2x80x9d (32.1.16, Chp. 32, pg. 5-6).
The soluble dietary fiber content per a given mass of food is calculated as follows:
(g soluble dietary fiber)=(mass of food)xc3x97(% soluble dietary fiber/100)
9. Beta-Glucan Soluble Fiber: The content of beta-glucan soluble fiber in a food is measured by an enzymatic-spectrophotometric method according to AOAC Official Method 992.28, xe2x80x9c(1xe2x86x923) (1xe2x86x924)-Beta-D-Glucans in Oat and Barley Fractions and Ready-to-Eat Cerealsxe2x80x9d (32.2.06, Chp. 32, pg. 28-29C).
The beta-glucan soluble fiber content per a given mass of food is calculated as follows:
(g beta-glucan soluble fiber)=(mass of food)xc3x97(% beta-glucan soluble fiber/100)
10. Extractable Lipid and Calculation of Non-Digestible Lipid: The total extractable lipid content of a food is measured by an extraction method known as AOAC Official Method 983.23, xe2x80x9cFat in Foods; Chloroform-Methanol Extraction Methodxe2x80x9d (45.4.02, Chp. 45, pg. 64-65). Percent total non-digestible lipid is calculated as follows:
(% non-digestible lipid)=(% extractable lipid)xe2x88x92(% digestible fat)
The percent digestible fat value in the above equation is derived from method #3 of Applicants"" Analytical Protocols.
The non-digestible lipid content per a given mass of food is calculated as follows:
(g non-digestible lipid)=(mass of food)xc3x97(% non-digestible lipid/100)
11. Water Activity: The water activity (Aw) of a food is measured using the following protocol and instruments:
Principle: The Rotronic Hygroskop relative humidity meter uses probes, each containing a humidity sensor and a temperature sensor, to measure the equilibrium relative humidity above a sample. A sample is introduced to the probe in an air tight chamber. After equilibrium has been reached, the relative humidity reading obtained from the instrument can be used to determine water activity (Aw).
Apparatus
a.) Rotronic Hygroskop model DT Relative Humidity Meter
b.) Model DMS100H Humidity Cells
c.) Rotronic Sample Dishes Part # PS-14
Reagents and Solutions
a.) 35% RH standard solution (EA-35) supplied by Rotronic Instrument Corp.
b.) 50% RH standard solution (EA-50) supplied by Rotronic Instrument Corp.
c.) 65% RH standard solution (EA-65) supplied by Rotronic Instrument Corp.
d.) 80% RH standard solution (EA-80) supplied by Rotronic Instrument Corp.
Procedure
a.) Instrument Operation and Calibration
(i) Prepare a standard curve of meter reading vs. %relative humidity (% RH) at 25xc2x0 C. using the four RH standards listed in this method. The accuracy of the calibration curves should be checked periodically using the relative humidity standard solutions.
(ii) Carefully open a vial of RH standard solution and pour the contents into a plastic sample dish. Place the sample dish containing the standard solution into cell #1 of the instrument and seal tightly. Allow at least one hour for the meter reading to stabilize. Record the meter and temperature readings.
(iii) Repeat step 2 for the other humidity standards.
(iv) Prepare a standard curve by plotting the meter readings against the known RH of the standards.
(v) Prepare a standard curve for cell #2 in the same fashion.
b.) Sample Analysis
(i) Select a humidity cell to use for the analysis. Wipe clean the inner surfaces of the cell with a paper towel. This will remove anything left over from a previous sample.
(ii) Obtain a sample of food product. Samples must be at room temperature before the analysis can be run.
(iii) Place the sample into a plastic sample dish. The sample may need to be crushed or ground (eg. crackers) to fit into the dish. The dish should be filled as much as possible with the sample.
(iv) Place the sample dish into a cell and place the cell into the instrument. Keeping the cell level, seal the cell tightly to the instrument.
(v) Allow at least xc2xd hour for meter reading to stabilize. Trend lights on both the RH meter and temperature meter should not be lit when recording a reading. If either is lit at the end of xc2xd hour, wait until they go out before recording the meter readings.
(vi) Record the RH and temperature meter readings.
(vii)Convert the RH meter reading to the equilibrium % RH using the previously prepared standard curve for the cell used. Convert the equilibrium relative humidity to Aw.
c.) Water activity (Aw)Calculations: Aw=% RH/100
All AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists) published methods can be found in the following reference which is incorporated by reference in its entirety:
AOAC International, Official Methods of Analysis, P. Cunniff (ed.), 16th edition, 5th Revision, 1999, Gaithersburg, Md.
Taste Test Protocol 1.1
During the course of their work, Applicants had a need to rate the taste profile of various products and embodiments of their invention. Since xe2x80x9ctastexe2x80x9d represents complex perceptions that interpret chemical, physiological and psychological clues into the xe2x80x9clikesxe2x80x9d and xe2x80x9cdislikesxe2x80x9d of the foods we eat and since Applicants are unaware of any standard method for rating the overall result of the interaction of said complex perceptions, Applicants have developed a simple and precise method for determining a food products overall taste acceptability. The protocol also seeks to ensure that any group of panelists who are evaluating any product""s taste system have basic taste preferences that are reasonably representative of the general population. When this protocol is followed, the result is an overall taste rating which can be used to indicate how acceptable a specific product""s taste system is in absolute terms and also relative to other products.
Taste Test Method Description
If a protocol is statistically based, it need not be elaborate or complicated. Accordingly, this Taste Test Protocol is robust, yet uncomplicated, as it requires only the use of basic statistics. Consequently, if this protocol is followed, one or more food products"" taste systems can be quickly evaluated with little effort and expense.
The Taste Test Protocol consists of two steps:
1.) Produce the Protocol Reference Product according to the following method and detailed formulation:
Dough Making
a.) Adjust formulation to make about a 500 g batch.
b.) Combine arrowroot, flour, salt, and baking soda in a medium bowl and stir with fork to mix well.
c.) Cream shortening and sugar in small bowl of a stationary Sunbeam Mixmaster electric stationary mixer (Cat. No. 01401) at speed #6 until blended and creamy.
d.) Add eggs one half at a time to #2 and beat at speed #6 until well blended.
e.) Add dry ingredients gradually to creamed mixture at speed #1 until blended.
Baking
a.) Drop 2.5 g-3.0 g dough balls onto a 12.5 inchxc3x9716.5 inch Wilton Performance Baking Sheet (about 25 dough balls per sheet). Flatten each dough ball into about a 1.25-inch (3.17 cm) diameter circle.
b.) Bake in a pre-heated oven at 350xc2x0 F. (176.7xc2x0 C.) for about 7.5 minutes or until brown around edges.
c.) Remove cookies from the baking sheet after about 10 minutes and place on a cooling rack to cool.
2.) For the reference product and each taste system that will be evaluated, follow the steps listed below.
a.) Obtain 256 panelists in a manner such that they, as a group, are representative of the general population of the country of interest with respect to the key demographic variables. Examples of demographic variables may include age, gender and ethnic background. Ways of accomplishing this selection process include but are not limited to: (1) stratifying the subject recruitment process by the key variables, or (2) randomly selecting individuals from a small geographic location (such as a city) that has been validated to be representative of the general population of the country of interest. No matter what process is used, care should be taken to minimize bias in the results due to recruiting a disproportionate number of individual from a particular demographic group. Once a group of 256 panelists has been obtained, one half of the group (128 panelists) should be randomly assigned to taste the reference product and the remainder of the group should be assigned to taste the test product. The randomization should be carried out in such a manner that each product has equal representation within each demographic stratum.
b.) Next, direct the panelists to cleanse their mouth of any pre-existing flavors or residue from previously consumed food or drink; this is accomplished by a technique familiar to those in the food industry in which panelists take a bite, chew and swallow a bland item and then rinse their mouth with water. For purposes of Applicants"" test, said bland item is an un-salted soda cracker marketed as Zesta Unsalted Tops(trademark) which can be obtained from the Keebler Company of Elmhurst, Ill. U.S.A.
c.) After the panelists have cleansed their mouths, provide fresh reference product to the panelists assigned to the reference product group and the test product to the panelists assigned to the test product group. Instruct the panelists to taste as much of the product that they are given as necessary to rate the taste system of that product. The panelists may swallow the product they are testing if they desire.
d.) Immediately after tasting the test product, have the panelists complete the questionnaire that is illustrated and described more fully below under the xe2x80x9cQuestionnairexe2x80x9d section of this test protocol.
e.) Analyze the results as follows:
(i) Calculate the sample mean of the overall taste score for each product""s taste system and sample variance of the overall taste score for each product""s taste system according to the method described on pages 24 and 35 of Chapter 2 in the Introduction To Statistics by Ronald E. Walpole, 3rd Edition (1982) New York, N.Y.
(ii) Next, calculate a confidence interval for the difference between the sample means of the reference product""s overall taste score and the test product""s overall taste score using the method known as xe2x80x9cSmall-sample Confidence Interval for xcexc1xe2x88x92xcexc2;"sgr"12xe2x89xa0"sgr"22 Unknownxe2x80x9d that is contained on page 258 of Chapter 9 in the Introduction To Statistics by Ronald E. Walpole, 3rd Edition (1982) New York, New York. The reference, Introduction To Statistics by Ronald E. Walpole, 3rd Edition (1982) New York, N.Y., is incorporated by reference in its entirety
Questionnaire
The taste assessment questionnaire is very simple. The questionnaire was designed to avoid any extraneous issues, as this helps to ensure accurate, reproducible execution by test administrators and the panelists participating in the taste assessment. Accordingly, the questionnaire contains only one questionxe2x80x94the panelists are asked to evaluate the taste system of the product that they tasted by giving it a 0 to 100 rating, wherein the scale is comprised of 5 point numerical increments, accompanied by a gradation of descriptors which orient the consumer to the best or maximum taste rating, i.e., 100=xe2x80x9cexcellentxe2x80x9d taste, and lowest or minimum taste rating, i.e., 0=xe2x80x9cpoorxe2x80x9d, with appropriate intermediate descriptors at equal intervals: 75=xe2x80x9cvery goodxe2x80x9d; 50=xe2x80x9cgoodxe2x80x9d; and xe2x80x9c25=xe2x80x9cfairxe2x80x9d, a scale commonly used in market, consumer and product research. Panelists are instructed to indicate a taste rating for a test product by circling the one number on the scale which represents their opinion of the overall taste (e.g., flavor, texture, etc.) of the test product being evaluated. Beyond the singular overall taste question, the questionnaire asks for only general demographic information regarding gender, age, and ethnic group, and how much the panelists generally likes or dislikes the general flavor category which the test product represents. These last questions are asked to ensure that the panel reflects taste preferences of the general population.
In selecting the scale for the questionnaire, an important consideration was the understanding of the normal degree of variation among consumers as to what they as individuals consider good taste. Experts in the food area understand the standard deviation of taste measures with an appropriately chosen 100 point scale will be approximately 25 points. As a result of the forgoing, and other considerations, Applicants selected the scale that is used in the taste test questionnaire depicted below.
Cracker Making
The following unit operations are unique to the production of crackers of this invention:
1) Dockingxe2x80x94holes are traditionally made in a cracker dough form before baking. While not to be bound by theory, it is believed docking bonds the dough layers together at discreet points to prevent excessive inflation (pillowing) of the cracker. Another function of docking it believed to be venting to allow the steam and gasses generated during baking to escape the structure which aids in lowering the post-baked moisture, and reduces excessive inflation. The appearance of these docking holes has been found to distract from the healthful image of the product. This may be because consumers identify the product with traditional crackers, which are not seen as healthy foods. It has been learned that pressing bits, such as nut pieces (8-12 mesh) into the dough form prior to baking accomplishes the same effect on the structure as docking holes. The appearance of the final product is much more healthful to the consumer, possibly because of the nuts on the surface, and possibly because the product no longer looks like a traditional cracker.
2) Water sprayxe2x80x94is used on the dough forms immediately before they enter the oven to control color. It has been found that surface water spray of 0.02-0.22 g/sq.in. (0.003-0.034 g/sq.cm) immediately prior to baking (oven entry) can result in a very noticable lightening of the baked cracker color. This is important because the lighter cracker color is consistent with the consumer""s view of more healthy products. Surprisingly, this extra water spray was found to have very little impact on the final baked moisture of the cracker. This is important because low moistures ( greater than about 5-6%) are necessary to achieve the desired crispness in eating quality.
3) Water sprayxe2x80x94when oven and oven band temperatures cannot be adjusted, water spray is used on the oven band immediately before the dough forms are transferred onto it from the feeder conveyor belt. This creates a damp band surface which facilitates the adherence of the dough form to the oven band. Without this help, rectangular dough forms are susceptible to shape deformation in the form of arching. This arching occurs such that the center of the shape is lifted off of the oven band surface. This deformation from a straight line from end to end can be as much or more than xe2x85x9xe2x80x3 (0.32 cm), which makes sandwiching two crackers very difficult.
4) Oil sprayxe2x80x94upon exit from the oven is normally done in a traditional cracker making operation in order to reduce the dryness impression during eating. The crackers of this invention are sprayed with Olean. A forced air spray nozzle, made by Spraying Systems Co. of Palatine, Ill. is found to be useful in ensuring that uniformly controlled quantities of Olean are sprayed onto the cracker surface.
Filling Making
Applicants"" filling making processes include hot and cold processes. There are three major differences in Applicants"" hot and cold processes:
1.) In the cold process any vitamins are crystallized in about a 1:1 weight ratio with shortening before being added to any other filling ingredients, and said other filling ingredients should be below the crystallization temperature of said vitamin/shortening mix before being combined with said vitamin/shortening mix.
2.) Also, in the cold process, any additional shortening is crystallized before being added to any other filling ingredients, and said other filling ingredients should be below the crystallization temperature of said additional shortening before being combined with said additional shortening.
3.) All mixing is done at the lower of the shortening""s crystallization temperature or 90xc2x0 F. (32.2xc2x0 C.). In addition to the processing differences list above, when Applicants"" cold filling making process is used to make a filling, stabilizers may not be required and it may be possible to use lower levels of flavorings. In addition to the teachings listed above, Applicants"" have provided numerous detailed examples teaching methods of making fillings.
Embodiments of Applicants"" invention may be used as weight control products, as they are nutritionally balanced and low in fat. In addition, embodiments of Applicants"" invention may be consumed as a protein or fiber supplements. Also, since embodiments of Applicants"" invention contain heart healthy components that, in addition to other benefits, can impart a hypocholesterolemic capability to foods, said embodiments may be consumed by a subject to lower the subject""s serum total and LDL-cholesterol. The following is a specific example of a method of using said embodiments to lower a subject""s serum total and LDL-cholesterol. This example is illustrative of the invention and is not to be construed to limit the invention in any way.
The filled cracker of Example 8 is used as a functional food composition to lower serum total and LDL-cholesterol. This product contains about 9.6 g of olestra (Olean brand) and about 6.25 g of soy protein per 40 g serving size. A group of at least 25 hypercholesterolemic subjects consume 3 servings/day of the filled crackers. The servings are spaced throughout the day; e.g., consumed with the breakfast, lunch, and dinner meals. Consumption continues for a period of 28 consecutive days. On day 1, a fasting blood sample is collected from each subject for measurement of the baseline blood lipid profile (total, LDL-, and HDL-cholesterol, and total lipids). On day 28, a second fasting blood sample is drawn from each subject and the blood lipid profile measured. For each subject, the blood lipid profile on day 28 is compared to the baseline profile measured on day 1. Following treatment, the total and/or LDL-cholesterol is reduced from the baseline level by an average of at least 10%.